Electrosurgical apparatus having compound return electrode

ABSTRACT

Electrosurgical apparatus and methods for ablating, coagulating, shrinking, stiffening, or other treatment of a target tissue of a patient. An apparatus of the invention includes an electrosurgical probe, and an introducer needle adapted for passing the distal end of the probe therethrough, wherein the probe includes an uninsulated shaft which makes electrical contact with the introducer needle when the shaft is engaged within a lumen of the introducer needle. The apparatus further includes an active electrode and a return electrode, wherein the return electrode comprises the shaft in combination with the introducer needle. In one embodiment, the active electrode includes an expandable electrode head.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] The present invention non-provisional of No. 60/299,095 filed Jun. 18, 2001 and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/676,194 filed Sep. 28, 2000 (Attorney Docket No. S-9), which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/224,107, filed Aug. 9, 2000, and is a continuation-in-part of PCT Application No. 00/13706, filed May 17, 2000 (Attorney Docket No. S-5-PCT), which claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/316,472, filed May 21, 1999 (Attorney Docket No. S-5), which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/295,687, filed Apr. 21, 1999 (Attorney Docket No. E-7-2) and U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/054,323 and 09/268,616, filed Apr. 2, 1998 and Mar. 15, 1999, respectively (Attorney Docket Nos. E-5 and E-7-1, respectively), each of which are continuation-in-parts of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/990,374, filed Dec. 15, 1997 (Attorney Docket E-3), which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/485,219, filed on Jun. 7, 1995 (Attorney Docket 16238-000600), the complete disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. This application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/026,851, filed Feb. 20, 1999 (Attorney Docket No. S2), which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/690,159, filed Jul. 18, 1996 (Attorney Docket No. 16238-001610), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

[0002] The present invention is related to commonly assigned co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/181,926, filed Oct. 28, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. S-12), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/130,804, filed Aug. 7, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. S-4), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/058,571, filed on Apr. 10, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. CB-2), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/248,763, filed Feb. 12, 1999 (Attorney Docket No. CB-7), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/026,698, filed Feb. 20, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. S-3), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/074,020, filed on May 6, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. E-6), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/010,382, filed Jan. 21, 1998 (Attorney Docket A-6), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/032,375, filed Feb. 27, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. CB-3), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/977,845, filed on Nov. 25, 1997 (Attorney Docket No. D-2), Ser. No. 08/942,580, filed on Oct. 2, 1997 (Attorney Docket No. 16238-001300), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/753,227, filed on Nov. 22, 1996 (Docket 16238-002200), U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/687,792, filed on Jul. 18, 1996 (Docket No. 16238-001600), and PCT International Application, U.S. National Phase Serial No. PCT/US94/05168, filed on May 10, 1994, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,909 (Attorney Docket 16238-000440), which was a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/059,681, filed on May 10, 1993 (Attorney Docket 16238-000420), which was a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/958,977, filed on Oct. 9, 1992 (Attorney Docket 16238-000410) which was a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/817,575, filed on Jan. 7, 1992 (Attorney Docket 16238-00040), the complete disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. The present invention is also related to commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,882, filed Nov. 22, 1995 (Attorney Docket 16238-000700), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] The present invention relates to the field of electrosurgery, and more particularly to surgical devices and methods which employ high frequency electrical energy to treat target tissue of a patient in situ. The present invention particularly relates to a bipolar electrosurgical apparatus having a compound return electrode. The present invention further relates to electrosurgical apparatus having an expandable active electrode terminal.

[0004] The major causes of persistent, often disabling, back pain are disruption of the disc annulus, chronic inflammation of the disc, contained and non-contained herniation, and relative instability of the vertebral bodies surrounding a given disc, such as the instability that often occurs due to a stretching of the interspinous tissue surrounding the vertebrae. Inter-vertebral discs mainly function to cushion and tether the vertebrae, while the interspinous tissue (i.e., tendons and cartilage, and the like) function to support the vertebrae so as to provide flexibility and stability to the patient's spine.

[0005] Spinal discs comprise a central hydrophilic cushion, the nucleus pulposus, surrounded by a multi-layered fibrous ligament, the annulus fibrosus. As discs degenerate, they lose their water content and height, bringing the adjoining vertebrae closer together. This results in a weakening of the shock absorption properties of the disc and a narrowing of the nerve openings in the sides of the spine which may pinch these nerves. This disc degeneration can eventually cause pain in the neck, back, and legs of a patient. Weakness in the annulus fibrosus resulting from disc degeneration or disc injury can allow fragments of nucleus pulposus from within the disc space to migrate through the annulus fibrosus and into the spinal canal. There, displaced nucleus pulposus tissue, or protrusion of the annulus fibrosus, e.g., due to herniation, may impinge on spinal nerves or nerve roots. A weakening of the annulus fibrosus can cause the disc to bulge, e.g., a contained herniation, and the mere proximity of the nucleus pulposus or the damaged annulus fibrosus to a nerve can cause direct pressure against the nerve, resulting in pain and sensory and motor deficit.

[0006] Often, inflammation from disc herniation can be treated successfully by non-surgical means, such as rest, therapeutic exercise, oral anti-inflammatory medications or epidural injection of corticosteroids. Such treatments result in a gradual but progressive improvement in symptoms and allow the patient to avoid surgical intervention.

[0007] In some cases, the disc tissue is irreparably damaged, thereby necessitating removal of a portion of the disc, or the entire disc, to eliminate the source of inflammation and pressure. In more severe cases, the adjacent vertebral bodies must be stabilized following excision of the disc material to avoid reocurrence of the pain or other symptoms. One approach to stabilizing the vertebrae, termed spinal fusion, is to insert an interbody graft or implant into the space vacated by the degenerative disc. In this procedure, a small amount of bone may be grafted and packed into the implants. This allows the bone to grow through and around the implant, fusing the vertebral bodies and preventing reoccurrence of the symptoms.

[0008] Until recently, surgical spinal procedures resulted in major operations and traumatic dissection of muscle, as well as bone removal or bone fusion. In an attempt to overcome the disadvantages of traditional traumatic spine surgery, minimally invasive (e.g., endoscopic) spine surgery was developed. In endoscopic spinal procedures, the spinal canal is not violated and therefore epidural bleeding with ensuing scarring is minimized or completely avoided. In addition, the risk of instability from ligament and bone removal is generally lower in endoscopic procedures than with open procedures. Further, more rapid rehabilitation facilitates faster recovery and return to work.

[0009] Minimally invasive techniques for the treatment of spinal diseases or disorders include chemonucleolysis, laser techniques, and mechanical techniques. These procedures generally require the surgeon to form a passage or operating corridor from the external surface of the patient to the spinal disc(s) for passage of surgical instruments, implants, and the like. Typically, the formation of this operating corridor requires the removal of soft tissue, muscle or other types of tissue depending on the type of procedure (e.g., laparascopic, thoracoscopic, arthroscopic, etc.). This tissue is usually removed with mechanical instruments, such as pituitary rongeurs, curettes, graspers, cutters, drills, microdebriders, and the like. Unfortunately, these mechanical instruments greatly lengthen and increase the complexity of the procedure. In addition, these instruments often sever blood vessels within this tissue, usually causing profuse bleeding that obstructs the surgeon's view of the target site. Once the operating corridor is established, the nerve root is retracted and a portion or all of the disc is removed with mechanical instruments, such as a pituitary rongeur. In addition to the above problems with mechanical instruments, there are serious concerns in this type of procedure because these mechanical instruments are not precise, and it is often difficult, during the procedure, to differentiate between the target disc tissue, and other structures within the spine, such as bone, cartilage, ligaments, nerves, and other non-target tissue. Thus, the surgeon must be extremely careful to minimize damage to the cartilage and bone within the spine, and to avoid damaging nerves, such as the spinal nerves and the dura mater surrounding the spinal cord.

[0010] Lasers were initially considered ideal for spine surgery because lasers ablate or vaporize tissue with heat, which also acts to cauterize and seal the small blood vessels in the tissue. Unfortunately, lasers are both expensive and somewhat tedious to use in these procedures. Another disadvantage with lasers is the difficulty in judging the depth of tissue ablation. Since the surgeon generally points and shoots the laser without contacting the tissue, he or she does not receive any tactile feedback to judge how deeply the laser is cutting. Because healthy tissue, bones, ligaments and spinal nerves often lie within close proximity of the spinal disc, it is essential to maintain a minimum depth of tissue damage, which cannot always be ensured with a laser.

[0011] Monopolar and bipolar radiofrequency devices have been used in limited roles in spine surgery, such as to cauterize severed vessels to improve visualization. Monopolar devices, however, suffer from the disadvantage that the electric current will flow through undefined paths in the patient's body, thereby increasing the risk of undesirable electrical stimulation to portions of the patient's body. In addition, since the defined path through the patient's body has a relatively high impedance (because of the large distance or resistivity of the patient's body), large voltage differences must typically be applied between the return and active electrodes in order to generate a current suitable for ablation or cutting of the target tissue. This current, however, may inadvertently flow along body paths having less impedance than the defined electrical path, which will substantially increase the current flowing through these paths, possibly causing damage to or destroying surrounding tissue or neighboring peripheral nerves.

[0012] Other disadvantages of conventional radiofrequency (RF) electrosurgical devices, particularly monopolar devices, include nerve stimulation, and interference with nerve monitoring equipment in the operating room. In addition, these devices typically operate by creating a voltage difference between the active electrode and the target tissue, causing an electrical arc to form across the physical gap between the electrode and the tissue. At the point of contact of the electric arcs with tissue, rapid tissue heating occurs due to high current density between the electrode and the tissue. This high current density causes cellular fluids to rapidly vaporize into steam, thereby producing a “cutting effect” along the pathway of localized tissue heating. Thus, the tissue is parted along the pathway of evaporated cellular fluid, inducing undesirable collateral tissue damage in regions surrounding the target tissue site. This collateral tissue damage often causes indiscriminate destruction of tissue, resulting in the loss of the proper function of the tissue. In addition, conventional RF devices do not remove any tissue directly, but rather depend on destroying a zone of tissue and allowing the body to eventually remove the destroyed tissue.

[0013] Many patients experience discogenic pain due to defects or disorders of inter-vertebral discs. Such disc defects include annular fissures, fragmentation of the nucleus pulposus, and contained herniation. A common cause of pain related to various disc disorders is compression of a nerve root by the disc. In many patients for whom major spinal surgery is not indicated, discogenic pain naturally diminishes in severity over an extended period of time, perhaps several months. Some pain management specialists believe that, in many cases, spine fusion procedures are unnecessary, and could be replaced by disc decompression. There is a need for a minimally invasive method to treat such patients in order to alleviate the chronic, and often debilitating, pain associated with spinal nerve root compression. The instant invention provides methods for decompressing nerve roots by ablation, shrinkage, or stiffening of disc tissue during a percutaneous procedure, wherein the volume of the disc is decreased and discogenic pain is alleviated. In particular, there is a need for apparatus and methods for treating inter-vertebral discs in the cervical region of the spine in a minimally invasive manner. There is also a need for an electrosurgical apparatus having a narrow diameter shaft suitable for treatment of tissue in confined spaces, wherein the shaft bears an expandable active electrode. There is a further need for an electrosurgical apparatus including an electrosurgical probe and an introducer device, wherein the distance that the probe shaft must protrude beyond the introducer device for firing the probe is minimized.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0014] The present invention provides systems, apparatus, and methods for selectively applying electrical energy to target tissue and structures within a patient's body. The systems and methods of the present invention are useful for shrinkage, ablation, stiffening, resection, aspiration, and/or hemostasis of tissue and other body structures in a broad range of open and endoscopic procedures. In particular, the present invention includes bipolar electrosurgical apparatus including a shaft and an introducer device for accommodating the shaft, wherein the shaft makes electrical contact with the introducer device when the shaft is engaged by the introducer device, thereby providing a compound return electrode for the apparatus.

[0015] The present invention further relates to an electrosurgical probe including an elongated shaft having first and second curves in the distal end portion of the shaft, wherein the shaft can be rotated within an inter-vertebral disc to contact fresh tissue of the nucleus pulposus. The present invention also relates to an electrosurgical probe including an elongated shaft, wherein the shaft distal end can be guided to a specific target site within a disc, and the shaft distal end is adapted for localized ablation of targeted disc tissue. The present invention further relates to a probe having an elongated shaft, wherein the shaft includes an active electrode, an insulating collar, and an outer shield, and wherein the active electrode includes a head having an apical spike and a cusp. The present invention still further relates to a method for ablating disc tissue with an electrosurgical probe, wherein the probe includes an elongated shaft, and the shaft distal end is guided to a specific target site within a disc.

[0016] In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of treating a herniated inter-vertebral disc. The method comprises positioning at least one active electrode within the inter-vertebral disc. High frequency voltage is applied between the active electrode(s) and one or more return electrode(s) to debulk, ablate, coagulate and/or shrink at least a portion of the nucleus pulposus and/or the annulus fibrosus. In one embodiment, the high frequency voltage effects a controlled depth of thermal heating to reduce the water content of the nucleus pulposus, thereby debulking the nucleus pulposus and reducing the internal pressure on the annulus fibrosus.

[0017] In one embodiment, an extraneous electrically conductive fluid, such as isotonic saline or an electrically conductive gel, is delivered to the target site within the inter-vertebral disc prior to delivery of the high frequency voltage. The electrically conductive fluid may fill the entire target region such that the active electrode(s) are submerged throughout the procedure. In other embodiments, the electrically conductive fluid in the patient's disc (e.g., the nucleus pulposus) may be used as a substitute for, or as a supplement to, the extraneous electrically conductive fluid (e.g., saline) that is applied or delivered to the target site. For example, in some embodiments, an initial amount of electrically conductive fluid is provided to initiate the requisite conditions (e.g., formation of a plasma layer) for ablation. Thereafter, the intrinsic electrically conductive fluid already present in the patient's tissue is used to sustain these conditions.

[0018] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of treating a disc having a contained herniation or fissure. The method comprises introducing an electrosurgical instrument into the patient's inter-vertebral disc either percutaneously or through an open procedure. The instrument is steered or otherwise guided into close proximity to the contained herniation or fissure and a high frequency voltage is applied between an active electrode and a return electrode so as to debulk the nucleus pulposus adjacent the contained herniation or fissure. In some embodiments, an electrically conductive fluid is delivered into the inter-vertebral disc prior to applying the high frequency voltage, to ensure that sufficient electrically conductive fluid exists for plasma formation and to conduct electric current between the active and return electrodes. Alternatively, the conductive fluid can be delivered to the target site during the procedure. In one embodiment, heating the nucleus pulposus debulks the nucleus pulposus, and reduces the size of the disc so as to decrease the pressure on the affected nerve root and alleviate neck and back pain.

[0019] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for treating degenerative inter-vertebral discs using an electrosurgical system by application of a high frequency voltage to at least one active electrode. The active electrode(s) are advanced into the target disc tissue with the system operating in an ablation mode, where the high frequency voltage is sufficient to ablate or remove the nucleus pulposus through molecular dissociation or disintegration processes. In these embodiments, the high frequency voltage applied to the active electrode(s) is sufficient to vaporize an electrically conductive fluid (e.g., gel, saline and/or intracellular fluid) between the active electrode(s) and the tissue. Within the vaporized fluid, an ionized plasma is formed and charged particles (e.g., electrons) cause the molecular breakdown or disintegration of several cell layers of the nucleus pulposus. This molecular dissociation is accompanied by the volumetric removal of the tissue. This process can be precisely controlled to effect the volumetric removal of tissue as thin as 10 microns to 150 microns with minimal heating of, or damage to, surrounding or underlying tissue structures. A more complete description of this phenomenon is described in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,882 the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0020] An apparatus (e.g., a probe or catheter) according to the present invention generally includes a shaft having proximal and distal end portions, an electrode assembly including an active electrode at the distal end and one or more connectors for coupling the active electrode to a source of high frequency electrical energy. The probe or catheter may assume a wide variety of configurations, with the primary purpose being to introduce the electrode assembly into the patient's disc (in an open or endoscopic procedure) and to permit the surgeon to manipulate the electrode assembly from a proximal end of the shaft. The shaft can be flexible, curved, or steerable so as to allow the surgeon to move the active electrode into at least close proximity of the region of the disc, e.g., a fissure or herniation, to be treated. The electrode assembly includes one or more active electrode(s) and a return electrode spaced from the active electrode(s) either on the instrument shaft or separate from the instrument shaft.

[0021] The active electrode(s) may comprise a single active electrode, or an electrode array, extending from an electrically insulating support member, typically made of an inorganic material such as a ceramic, a silicone rubber, or a glass. The active electrode usually has a smaller exposed surface area than the return electrode, such that the current densities are much higher at the active electrode than at the return electrode. In one embodiment, the return electrode has a relatively large, smooth surface extending around the instrument shaft to reduce current densities, thereby minimizing damage to adjacent tissue.

[0022] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of treating an inter-vertebral disc, the method comprising contacting at least a first region of the inter-vertebral disc with at least one active electrode of an electrosurgical system. The at least one active electrode may be disposed on the distal end portion of a shaft of the electrosurgical system. A first high frequency voltage is applied between the active electrode(s) and one or more return electrode(s) such that at least a portion of the nucleus pulposus is ablated, and the volume of the disc's nucleus pulposus is decreased. After ablation of disc tissue at the first region of the inter-vertebral disc, other regions of the disc may be contacted with the at least one active electrode for ablation of disc tissue at the other regions of the disc. In one embodiment of the invention, axial translation of the at least one active electrode within the disc, while applying the first high frequency voltage, leads to formation of a channel within the treated disc. The diameter of such a channel may be increased by rotating the at least one active electrode about the longitudinal axis of the shaft while applying the first high frequency voltage. Optionally, after a channel has been formed in the disc, disc tissue in the vicinity of the channel may be coagulated, made necrotic, or made to sustain controlled thermal damage by applying a second high frequency voltage, wherein the second high frequency voltage may have different parameters as compared with the first high frequency voltage. For example, the second high frequency voltage may be applied in a sub-ablation mode to stiffen or shrink disc tissue in the vicinity of the channel.

[0023] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for treating an inter-vertebral disc, wherein the method involves providing an electrosurgical system including a probe having a shaft and a handle, the shaft having at least one active electrode located on the distal end portion of the shaft, and wherein the shaft distal end portion includes a pre-defined bias. The method further involves inserting the shaft distal end portion within the disc, and ablating at least a portion of the nucleus pulposus tissue from the disc such that the volume of the disc is decreased with minimal or no collateral damage to non-target tissue within the disc. The ablating step involves applying a high frequency voltage between the at least one active electrode and at least one return electrode. The high frequency voltage is sufficient to vaporize an electrically conductive fluid (e.g., a gel, isotonic saline, and/or tissue fluid) located between the at least one active electrode and the target tissue. Within the vaporized fluid a plasma is formed, and charged particles (e.g., electrons) are accelerated towards the nucleus pulposus to cause the molecular dissociation of nucleus pulposus tissue at the site to be ablated. This molecular dissociation is accompanied by the volumetric removal of disc tissue at the target site.

[0024] In one embodiment, inserting the shaft distal end portion in the disc involves advancing the shaft distal end portion via an introducer needle, the introducer needle having a lumen and a needle distal end, such that when the shaft distal end portion is advanced distally beyond the needle distal end, the at least one active electrode does not make contact with the needle distal end. One or more stages in the treatment or procedure may be performed under fluoroscopy to allow visualization of the shaft within the disc to be treated. Visualization of the shaft may be enhanced by inclusion of a radiopaque tracking device on the distal end of the shaft. The depth of penetration of the shaft into a disc can be monitored by one or more depth markings on the shaft.

[0025] In another aspect of the invention, the method further comprises retracting the shaft distal end portion proximally within the lumen of the introducer needle, wherein the at least one active electrode does not make contact with the needle distal end.

[0026] In another aspect of the invention, a probe of the electrosurgical system includes a shield, and a distal insulating collar. In yet another aspect of the invention, the at least one active electrode includes an apical spike and a cusp. Applicants have found that an active electrode having an apical spike and a cusp promotes high current density in the vicinity of the active electrode.

[0027] In one aspect of the invention, there is provided an electrode for a medical instrument, wherein the electrode comprises an electrode filament and a distal electrode head in the form of a loop. The loop is formed by folding a length of insulated wire, separating the folded wire at the distal end portion of the folded wire to form the loop, and removing a layer of insulation from the wire in the region of the loop. The layer of insulation may comprise a polyimide. In one embodiment, the loop is substantially oval or substantially circular. In another embodiment, the loop is substantially square or rectangular, and is formed by making a plurality of folds in a length of wire. The filament comprises a pair of juxtaposed wires resulting from folding the length of wire. The loop may comprise a metal such as platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, or their alloys. In another embodiment, an electrode for an electrosurgical probe may be constructed by forming an elongate void in a distal portion of a wire, and opening the void to form a loop, wherein the loop comprises an apical electrode head.

[0028] According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided an electrosurgical probe including a shaft having a shaft distal end, and an electrode assembly disposed at the shaft distal end. The electrode assembly comprising an active electrode having a distal electrode head in the form of a loop. The shaft distal end and the electrode assembly are adapted for passage through a lumen of an introducer device, such as a hypodermic needle. The probe is capable of ablating tissue in an ablation mode, and for modifying tissue in a sub-ablation mode.

[0029] According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided an electrosurgical apparatus including a probe having a shaft distal end, an introducer needle having a lumen therethrough, and a positioning unit. The introducer needle is adapted for passage of the shaft distal end therethrough. The probe includes an electrode assembly disposed at the shaft distal end, and is adapted for treating tissue, e.g., tissue within an inter-vertebral disc. Treatment may include ablation or modification of disc tissue by application of a high frequency voltage from a power supply operating in the ablation mode or the sub-ablation mode. Modification of the disc tissue may involve coagulation, shrinkage, or stiffening of a target tissue. The positioning unit is adapted for monitoring a location of the probe relative to the introducer needle. In some embodiments, the positioning unit is further adapted for advancing and retracting the introducer needle relative to the probe, and for locking the probe in one or more positions relative to the introducer needle. In some embodiments, the introducer needle includes at least one depth marking for monitoring a depth of penetration of the introducer needle into a patient's body, and an introducer stop unit for limiting the depth of penetration of the introducer needle into the patient's body.

[0030] According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided an electrosurgical probe having an expandable active electrode head, wherein the active electrode head can expand from a first unexpanded configuration to a second expanded configuration. The active electrode head adopts the unexpanded configuration when constrained within the confines of a lumen of an introducer needle. Prior to firing the probe for treatment of a target tissue, the active electrode head protrudes from the distal end of the introducer needle and adopts the expanded configuration. In the expanded configuration, a larger volume of tissue can be treated by the probe for a given amount of axial and rotational movement of the probe. In one embodiment, the active electrode head comprises a spring-like material biased towards the expanded configuration. In another embodiment, the active electrode head may comprise a shape memory alloy (SMA).

[0031] In a further aspect of the invention, there is provided an apparatus including an electrosurgical probe and an introducer device, wherein the probe includes a shaft, an electrically insulating spacer disposed at the distal end of the shaft, and an active electrode disposed on the spacer. The introducer device comprises an electrically conducting material and includes a lumen therethrough, the lumen adapted for accommodating the shaft. The shaft similarly comprises an electrically conducting material, and the shaft makes electrical contact with the introducer device when the shaft is engaged within the lumen. The shaft and the active electrode are independently coupled to a high frequency power supply. When the shaft is engaged within the introducer device, and a voltage is applied from the power supply, the shaft and introducer device in combination serve as return electrode for the apparatus. In one embodiment, a proximal portion of the introducer device has a thin external coating of an electrically insulating material. The external coating may comprise a polymeric material, such as a Parylene (Union Carbide). The external coating may be deposited by gas phase polymerization to give a uniform, heat-resistant, biocompatible, pinhole-free layer.

[0032] According to one aspect of the invention, using the introducer device in combination with the shaft as return electrode allows construction of a narrower apparatus (i.e., a probe engaged within an introducer device) as well as other advantages, as compared with conventional probe/introducer device combinations. Thus, prior art devices use an insulating layer on the shaft to prevent arcing between the shaft and the introducer device, and, in some cases a protective layer covers the insulating layer to protect the insulating layer from skiving as the shaft is passed within the introducer device. By using the introducer device as a return electrode, both the insulating layer on the shaft and the protective layer are omitted. Furthermore, the external coating on the introducer device of the invention is typically thinner than the insulating layer on the shaft of many prior art devices, thereby further reducing the overall diameter of the probe/introducer combination. An electrosurgical probe/introducer combination having a narrower diameter offers advantages in a broad range of procedures.

[0033] According to another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus including an electrosurgical probe and an introducer device, wherein a return electrode of the apparatus comprises a shaft of the probe in combination with the introducer device, and wherein the apparatus requires a shorter length of the probe to protrude from the distal end of the introducer device for firing the probe, as compared with apparatus of the prior art. By using the introducer device as a return electrode, the distance that the active electrode needs to protrude from the introducer device for the apparatus to be fired is minimized. This configuration of the apparatus allows the surgeon more latitude in placement of the active electrode while firing the probe within a confined space, such as within a cervical inter-vertebral disc.

[0034] In a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for treating an inter-vertebral disc. The method comprises introducing an introducer needle into the disc of a patient. Thereafter, an electrode assembly of a probe is positioned within the disc by passage through the needle lumen. The electrode assembly comprises a distal active electrode disposed on an electrically insulating spacer. The introducer needle is retracted, by actuation of a positioning unit, in order to expose a distal portion of the probe. The extent to which the electrode assembly protrudes distally from the introducer needle is monitored, and if necessary restricted, via the positioning unit. When the active electrode protrudes distally from the introducer needle by at least a minimum distance, a high frequency voltage may be applied to the probe via a high frequency power supply operating in the ablation mode or the sub-ablation mode. In this manner, target tissue within the disc can be ablated, coagulated, shrunk (contracted), or stiffened.

[0035] For a further understanding of the nature and advantages of the invention, reference should be made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0036]FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an electrosurgical system incorporating a power supply and an electrosurgical probe for tissue ablation, resection, incision, contraction and for vessel hemostasis according to the present invention;

[0037]FIG. 2 schematically illustrates one embodiment of a power supply according to the present invention;

[0038]FIG. 3 illustrates an electrosurgical system incorporating a plurality of active electrodes and associated current limiting elements;

[0039]FIG. 4 is a side view of an electrosurgical probe according to the present invention;

[0040]FIG. 5 is a view of the distal end portion of the probe of FIG. 4

[0041]FIG. 6 is an exploded view of a proximal portion of an electrosurgical probe;

[0042]FIGS. 7A and 7B are perspective and end views, respectively, of an alternative electrosurgical probe incorporating an inner fluid lumen;

[0043] FIGS. 8A-8C are cross-sectional views of the distal portions of three different embodiments of an electrosurgical probe according to the present invention;

[0044] FIGS. 9-12 are end views of alternative embodiments of the probe of FIG. 4, incorporating aspiration electrode(s);

[0045]FIG. 13 is a side view of the distal portion of the shaft of an electrosurgical probe, according to one embodiment of the invention;

[0046] FIGS. 14A-14C illustrate an alternative embodiment incorporating a screen electrode;

[0047] FIGS. 15A-15D illustrate four embodiments of electrosurgical probes specifically designed for treating spinal defects;

[0048]FIG. 16 illustrates an electrosurgical system incorporating a dispersive return pad for monopolar and/or bipolar operations;

[0049]FIG. 17 illustrates a catheter system for electrosurgical treatment of inter-vertebral discs according to the present invention;

[0050] FIGS. 18-22 illustrate a method of performing a microendoscopic discectomy according to the principles of the present invention;

[0051] FIGS. 23-25 illustrates another method of treating a spinal disc with one of the catheters or probes of the present invention;

[0052]FIG. 26A is a side view of an electrosurgical probe according to the invention;

[0053]FIG. 26B is a side view of the distal end portion of the electrosurgical probe of FIG. 26A;

[0054]FIG. 27A is a side view of an electrosurgical probe having a curved shaft;

[0055]FIG. 27B is a side view of the distal end portion of the curved shaft of FIG. 27A, with the shaft distal end portion within an introducer device;

[0056]FIG. 27C is a side view of the distal end portion of the curved shaft of FIG. 27B in the absence of the introducer device;

[0057]FIG. 28A is a side view of the distal end portion of an electrosurgical probe showing an active electrode having an apical spike and an equatorial cusp;

[0058]FIG. 28B is a cross-sectional view of the distal end portion of the electrosurgical probe of FIG. 28A;

[0059]FIG. 29 is a side view of the distal end portion a shaft of an electrosurgical probe, indicating the position of a first curve and a second curve in relation to the head of the active electrode;

[0060]FIG. 30A shows the distal end portion of the shaft of an electrosurgical probe extended distally from an introducer needle;

[0061]FIG. 30B illustrates the position of the active electrode in relation to the inner wall of the introducer needle upon retraction of the active electrode within the introducer needle;

[0062]FIGS. 31A, 31B show a side view and an end view, respectively, of a curved shaft of an electrosurgical probe, in relation to an introducer needle;

[0063]FIG. 32A shows the proximal end portion of the shaft of an electrosurgical probe, wherein the shaft includes a plurality of depth markings;

[0064]FIG. 32B shows the proximal end portion of the shaft of an electrosurgical probe, wherein the shaft includes a mechanical stop;

[0065]FIG. 33 illustrates stages in manufacture of an active electrode of an electrosurgical probe of the present invention;

[0066]FIG. 34 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of making a probe shaft of the present invention;

[0067]FIG. 35 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of making an electrosurgical probe of the present invention;

[0068]FIG. 36A schematically represents a normal inter-vertebral disc in relation to the spinal cord;

[0069]FIG. 36B schematically represents an inter-vertebral disc exhibiting a protrusion of the nucleus pulposus and a concomitant distortion of the annulus fibrosus;

[0070]FIG. 36C schematically represents an inter-vertebral disc exhibiting a plurality of fissures within the annulus fibrosus and a concomitant distortion of the annulus fibrosus;

[0071]FIG. 36D schematically represents an inter-vertebral disc exhibiting fragmentation of the nucleus pulposus and a concomitant distortion of the annulus fibrosus;

[0072]FIG. 37 schematically represents translation of a curved shaft of an electrosurgical probe within the nucleus pulposus for treatment of an inter-vertebral disc;

[0073]FIG. 38 shows a shaft of an electrosurgical probe within an intervertebral disc, wherein the shaft distal end is targeted to a specific site within the disc;

[0074]FIG. 39 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of ablating disc tissue according to the present invention;

[0075]FIG. 40 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of guiding an electrosurgical probe to a target site within an inter-vertebral disc for ablation of targeted disc tissue, according to another embodiment of the invention;

[0076]FIG. 41 shows treatment of an inter-vertebral disc using an electrosurgical probe and a separately introduced ancillary device, according to another embodiment of the invention;

[0077]FIG. 42 is a side view of an electrosurgical probe having a tracking device;.

[0078]FIG. 43A shows a steerable electrosurgical probe wherein the shaft of the probe assumes a substantially linear configuration;

[0079]FIG. 43B shows the steerable electrosurgical probe of FIG. 43A, wherein the shaft distal end of the probe adopts a bent configuration;

[0080]FIG. 44 shows a steerable electrosurgical probe and an ancillary device inserted within the nucleus pulposus of an inter-vertebral disc;

[0081]FIG. 45 is a block diagram representing an electrosurgical system, according to another embodiment of the invention;

[0082]FIG. 46 is a block diagram representing an introducer unit of an electrosurgical apparatus, according to one embodiment of the invention;

[0083]FIGS. 47A and 47B each represents an electrosurgical probe, according to the invention;

[0084]FIG. 48 schematically represents an electrosurgical system, according to one embodiment of the invention;

[0085] FIGS. 49A-C each schematically represent an electrosurgical probe in a different position relative to an introducer device, according to the invention;

[0086]FIG. 50 is a partial longitudinal section of the distal portion of an electrosurgical probe, according to one embodiment of the invention;

[0087] FIGS. 51A-C each schematically represents an active electrode for a medical instrument, according to three different embodiments;

[0088] FIGS. 52A-B each schematically represents an active electrode for a medical instrument, according to two different embodiments of the invention;

[0089] FIGS. 53A-C represent stages in forming an active electrode loop from a wire or filament, according to one embodiment of the invention;

[0090]FIG. 54 schematically represents a procedure for electrosurgical treatment of a cervical inter-vertebral disc, according to one embodiment of the invention;

[0091] FIGS. 55A-C each schematically represent positioning an electrosurgical apparatus within an inter-vertebral disc, according to the invention;

[0092]FIG. 56 is a block diagram representing an electrosurgical system, according to another embodiment of the invention;

[0093] FIGS. 57A-D schematically represent an electrosurgical apparatus including an introducer device, according to the invention;

[0094] FIGS. 58A-C schematically represent an expandable electrode, according to another embodiment of the invention;

[0095]FIGS. 59A and 59B schematically represent an expandable electrode in the unexpanded and expanded configurations, respectively, according to another embodiment of the invention; and

[0096]FIG. 60 schematically represents steps involved in a method for treating an inter-vertebral disc, according to another embodiment of the invention.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

[0097] The present invention provides systems and methods for selectively applying electrical energy to a target location within or on a patient's body, particularly including support tissue or other body structures in the spine. The invention may be used for performing a broad range of procedures, including treating interspinous tissue and degenerative discs, laminectomy/discectomy procedures for treating herniated discs, decompressive laminectomy for stenosis in the lumbosacral and cervical spine, localized tears or fissures in the annulus, nucleotomy, disc fusion procedures, medial facetectomy, posterior lumbosacral and cervical spine fusions, treatment of scoliosis associated with vertebral disease, foraminotomies to remove the roof of the inter-vertebral foramina to relieve nerve root compression, and anterior cervical and lumbar discectomies. These procedures may be performed through open procedures, or using minimally invasive techniques, such as thoracoscopy, arthroscopy, laparascopy or the like.

[0098] The present invention involves techniques for treating disc abnormalities with RF energy. In some embodiments, RF energy is used to ablate, debulk and/or stiffen the tissue structure of the disc to reduce the volume of the disc, thereby relieving neck and back pain. In one aspect of the invention, spinal disc tissue is volumetrically removed or ablated to form holes, channels, divots or other spaces within the disc. In this procedure, a high frequency voltage difference is applied between one or more active electrode(s) and one or more return electrode(s) to develop high electric field intensities in the vicinity of the target tissue. The high electric field intensities adjacent the active electrode(s) lead to electric field induced molecular breakdown of target tissue through molecular dissociation (rather than thermal evaporation or carbonization). Applicant believes that the tissue structure is volumetrically removed through molecular disintegration of larger organic molecules into smaller molecules and/or atoms, such as hydrogen, oxygen, oxides of carbon, hydrocarbons and nitrogen compounds. This molecular disintegration completely removes the tissue structure, as opposed to dehydrating the tissue material by the removal of water from within the cells of the tissue and extracellular fluids, as is typically the case with electrosurgical desiccation of the prior art.

[0099] The present invention also involves a system and method for treating the interspinous tissue (e.g., tendons, cartilage, synovial tissue between the vertebrae, and other support tissue within and surrounding the vertebral column). In some embodiments, RF energy is used to heat and shrink the interspinous tissue to stabilize the vertebral column and reduce pain in the back and neck. In one aspect of the invention, an active electrode is positioned adjacent the interspinous tissue and the interspinous tissue is heated, preferably with RF energy, to a sufficient temperature to shrink the interspinous tissue. In a specific embodiment, a high frequency voltage difference is applied between one or more active electrode(s) and one or more return electrode(s) to develop high electric field intensities in the vicinity of the target tissue to controllably heat the target tissue.

[0100] The high electric field intensities may be generated by applying a high frequency voltage that is sufficient to vaporize an electrically conductive fluid over at least a portion of the active electrode(s) in the region between the distal tip of the active electrode(s) and the target tissue. The electrically conductive fluid may be a gas or liquid, such as isotonic saline, blood, extracellular or intracellular fluid, delivered to, or already present at, the target site, or a viscous fluid, such as a gel, applied to the target site. Since the vapor layer or vaporized region has a relatively high electrical impedance, it minimizes the current flow into the electrically conductive fluid. This ionization, under the conditions described herein, induces the discharge of energetic electrons and photons from the vapor layer and to the surface of the target tissue. A more detailed description of this phenomenon, termed Coblation® can be found in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,882 the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0101] Applicant believes that the principal mechanism of tissue removal in the Coblation® process of the present invention involves energetic electrons or ions that have been energized in a plasma adjacent to the active electrode(s). When a liquid is heated enough that atoms vaporize off the surface faster than they recondense, a gas is formed. When the gas is heated enough that the atoms collide with each other and knock their electrons off in the process, an ionized gas or plasma is formed (the so-called “fourth state of matter”). A more complete description of plasma can be found in Plasma Physics, by R. J. Goldston and P. H. Rutherford of the Plasma Physics Laboratory of Princeton University (1995), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. When the density of the vapor layer (or within a bubble formed in the electrically conductive fluid) becomes sufficiently low (i.e., less than approximately 10²⁰ atoms/cm³ for aqueous solutions), the electron mean free path increases to enable subsequently injected electrons to cause impact ionization within these regions of low density (i.e., vapor layers or bubbles). Once the ionic particles in the plasma layer have sufficient energy, they accelerate towards the target tissue. Energy evolved by the energetic electrons (e.g., 3.5 eV to 5 eV) can subsequently bombard a molecule and break its bonds, dissociating a molecule into free radicals, which then combine into final gaseous or liquid species.

[0102] Plasmas may be formed by heating a gas and ionizing the gas by driving an electric current through it, or by transmitting radio waves into the gas. Generally, these methods of plasma formation give energy to free electrons in the plasma directly, and then electron-atom collisions liberate more electrons, and the process cascades until the desired degree of ionization is achieved. Often, the electrons carry the electrical current or absorb the radio waves and, therefore, are hotter than the ions. Thus, in applicant's invention, the electrons, which are carried away from the tissue towards the return electrode, carry most of the plasma's heat with them, allowing the ions to break apart the tissue molecules in a substantially non-thermal manner.

[0103] In some embodiments, the present invention applies high frequency (RF) electrical energy in an electrically conducting media environment to shrink or remove (i.e., resect, cut, or ablate) a tissue structure and to seal transected vessels within the region of the target tissue. The present invention may also be useful for sealing larger arterial vessels, e.g., on the order of about 1 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, a high frequency power supply is provided having an ablation mode, wherein a first voltage is applied to an active electrode sufficient to effect molecular dissociation or disintegration of the tissue, and a coagulation mode, wherein a second, lower voltage is applied to an active electrode (either the same or a different electrode) sufficient to heat, shrink, and/or achieve hemostasis of severed vessels within the tissue. In other embodiments, an electrosurgical instrument is provided having one or more coagulation electrode(s) configured for sealing a severed vessel, such as an arterial vessel, and one or more active electrodes configured for either contracting the collagen fibers within the tissue or removing (ablating) the tissue, e.g., by applying sufficient energy to the tissue to effect molecular dissociation. In the latter embodiments, the coagulation electrode(s) may be configured such that a single voltage can be applied to coagulate with the coagulation electrode(s), and to ablate or shrink with the active electrode(s). In other embodiments, the power supply is combined with the coagulation instrument such that the coagulation electrode is used when the power supply is in the coagulation mode (low voltage), and the active electrode(s) are used when the power supply is in the ablation mode (higher voltage).

[0104] In one method of the present invention, one or more active electrodes are brought into close proximity to tissue at a target site, and the power supply is activated in the ablation mode such that sufficient voltage is applied between the active electrodes and the return electrode to volumetrically remove the tissue through molecular dissociation, as described below. During this process, vessels within the tissue will be severed. Smaller vessels will be automatically sealed with the system and method of the present invention. Larger vessels, and those with a higher flow rate, such as arterial vessels, may not be automatically sealed in the ablation mode. In these cases, the severed vessels may be sealed by activating a control (e.g., a foot pedal) to reduce the voltage of the power supply into the coagulation mode. In this mode, the active electrodes may be pressed against the severed vessel to provide sealing and/or coagulation of the vessel. Alternatively, a coagulation electrode located on the same or a different instrument may be pressed against the severed vessel. Once the vessel is adequately sealed, the surgeon activates a control (e.g., another foot pedal) to increase the voltage of the power supply back into the ablation mode.

[0105] In another aspect, the present invention may be used to shrink or contract collagen containing connective tissue which supports the vertebral column, or collagen containing connective tissue within an inter-vertebral disc. In these procedures, the RF energy heats the tissue directly by virtue of the electrical current flow therethrough, and/or indirectly through the exposure of the tissue to fluid heated by RF energy, to elevate the tissue temperature from normal body temperatures (e.g., 37° C.) to temperatures in the range of 45° C. to 90° C., preferably in the range from about 60° C. to 70° C. Thermal shrinkage of collagen fibers occurs within a small temperature range which, for mammalian collagen is in the range of from about 60° C. to 70° C. (see, for example, Deak, G., et al., “The Thermal Shrinkage Process of Collagen Fibres as Revealed by Polarization Optical Analysis of Topooptical Staining Reactions,” Acta Morphological Acad. Sci. of Hungary, Vol. 15(2), pp. 195-208, 1967). Collagen fibers typically undergo maximum thermal shrinkage in the range of 60° C. to about 70° C. Previously reported research has attributed thermal shrinkage of collagen to the cleaving of the internal stabilizing cross-linkages within the collagen matrix (G. Deak, et al., ibid.). It has also been reported that when the collagen temperature is increased above 70° C., the collagen matrix begins to relax again and the shrinkage effect is reversed resulting in no net shrinkage (see, for example, Allain, J. C., et al., “Isometric Tensions Developed During the Hydrothermal Swelling of Rat Skin,” Connective Tissue Research, Vol. 7, pp 127-133, 1980), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. Consequently, the controlled heating of tissue to a precise depth is critical to the achievement of therapeutic collagen shrinkage. A more detailed description of collagen shrinkage can be found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/942,580 filed on Oct. 2, 1997, (Attorney Docket No. 16238-001300), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

[0106] The preferred depth of heating to effect the shrinkage of collagen in the heated region (i.e., the depth to which the tissue is elevated to temperatures between 60° C. to 70° C.) generally depends on (1) the thickness of the target tissue, (2) the location of nearby structures (e.g., nerves) that should not be exposed to damaging temperatures, and/or (3) the location of the collagen tissue layer within which therapeutic shrinkage is to be effected. The depth of heating is usually in the range from 1.0 mm to 5.0 mm.

[0107] In some embodiments of the present invention, the tissue is purposely damaged in a thermal heating mode to create necrosed or scarred tissue at the tissue surface. The high frequency voltage in the thermal heating mode is below the threshold of ablation as described above, but sufficient to cause some thermal damage to the tissue immediately surrounding the electrodes without vaporizing or otherwise debulking this tissue in situ. Typically, it is desired to achieve a tissue temperature in the range of about 60° C. to 100° C. to a depth of about 0.2 mm to 5 mm, usually about 1 mm to 2 mm. The voltage required for this thermal damage will partly depend on the electrode configurations, the conductivity of the area immediately surrounding the electrodes, the time period for which the voltage is applied, and the depth of tissue damage desired. With the electrode configurations described in this application (e.g., FIGS. 15A-15D), the voltage level for thermal heating will usually be in the range of about 20 volts RMS to 300 volts RMS, and more typically about 60 volts RMS to 200 volts RMS. The peak-to-peak voltages for thermal heating with a square wave form having a crest factor of about 2 are typically in the range of about 40 volts peak-to-peak to 600 volts peak-to-peak, preferably about 120 volts peak-to-peak to 400 volts peak-to-peak. In some embodiments, capacitors or other electrical elements may be used to increase the crest factor up to 10. The higher the voltage is within this range, the less time required. If the voltage is too high, however, the surface tissue may be vaporized, debulked or ablated, which is generally undesirable for certain applications.

[0108] According to another aspect, the present invention may be used for treating degenerative discs having fissures or tears. In one embodiment, the active and return electrode(s) are positioned in or around the inner wall of the annulus fibrosus such that the active electrode is adjacent to the fissure. High frequency voltage is applied between the active and return electrodes to heat the tissue adjacent to the fissure, to shrink the collagen fibers, to create a seal or weld within the inner wall, thereby helping to close the fissure in the annulus fibrosus. In these embodiments, the return electrode will typically be positioned proximally from the active electrode(s) on the instrument shaft, and an electrically conductive fluid will be supplied to provide a current path between the active and return electrodes. In alternative embodiments, the disc tissue may complete this electrically conductive path.

[0109] The present invention is also useful for removing or ablating tissue around nerves, such as spinal, peripheral, or cranial nerves. One of the significant drawbacks with the prior art shavers or microdebriders, conventional electrosurgical devices, and lasers is that these devices do not differentiate between the target tissue and the surrounding nerves or bone. Therefore, the surgeon must be extremely careful during these procedures to avoid damage to the bone or nerves within and around the target site. In the present invention, the Coblation® process for removing tissue avoids damage to non-target tissue, or results in extremely small depths of collateral tissue damage, as discussed above. This allows the surgeon to remove tissue close to a nerve without damaging the nerve.

[0110] In addition to the generally precise nature of the novel mechanisms of the present invention, applicant has discovered an additional method of ensuring that adjacent nerves are not damaged during tissue removal. According to the present invention, systems and methods are provided for distinguishing between the fatty material immediately surrounding nerve fibers and the normal tissue that is to be removed during the procedure. Peripheral nerves usually comprise a connective tissue sheath, or epineurium, enclosing the bundles of nerve fibers, each bundle being surrounded by its own sheath of connective tissue (the perineurium) to protect these nerve fibers. The outer protective tissue sheath or epineurium typically comprises a fatty material having substantially different electrical properties than the normal target tissue, such as collagen containing connective tissue in or around the vertebral column. The system of the present invention measures the electrical properties of the tissue at the tip of the probe with one or more sensing electrode(s). These electrical properties may include electrical conductivity at one, several, or a range of frequencies (e.g., in the range from 1 kHz to 100 MHz), dielectric constant, capacitance, or combinations of these. In this embodiment, an audible signal may be produced when the sensing electrode(s) at the tip of the probe detects the fatty material surrounding a nerve. Alternatively, direct feedback control can be provided to supply power to the active electrode(s), either individually or to the complete array of electrodes, only if and when the tissue encountered at the tip or working end of the probe is normal tissue based on the measured electrical properties.

[0111] In one embodiment, the current limiting elements (discussed in detail herein) are configured such that the active electrodes will shut down or turn off when the electrical impedance reaches a threshold level. When this threshold level is set to the impedance of the fatty material surrounding peripheral nerves, the active electrodes will shut off whenever they come in contact with, or in close proximity to, nerves. Meanwhile, other active electrodes of an electrode array, which are in contact with or in close proximity to “normal” target tissue, will continue to conduct electric current to the return electrode. This selective ablation or removal of lower impedance tissue, in combination with the Coblation® mechanism of the present invention, allows the surgeon to precisely remove tissue around nerves or bone. Applicant has found that the present invention is capable of volumetrically removing tissue closely adjacent to nerves without impairing the function of the nerves, and without significantly damaging the epineurium.

[0112] In addition to the above, applicant has discovered that the Coblation® mechanism of the present invention can be manipulated to ablate or remove certain tissue structures, while having little effect on other tissue structures. As discussed above, the present invention uses a technique of vaporizing electrically conductive fluid to form a plasma layer or pocket around the active electrode(s), and then inducing the discharge of energy from this plasma or vapor layer to break the molecular bonds of the tissue structure. Based on initial experiments, applicants believe that the free electrons within the ionized vapor layer are accelerated in the high electric fields near the electrode tip(s). When the density of the vapor layer (or within a bubble formed in the electrically conducting fluid) becomes sufficiently low (i.e., less than approximately 10²⁰ atoms/cm³ for aqueous solutions), the electron mean free path increases to enable subsequently injected electrons to cause impact ionization within these regions of low density (i.e., vapor layers or bubbles). Energy evolved by the energetic electrons (e.g., 4 eV to 5 eV) can subsequently bombard a molecule and break its bonds, dissociating a molecule into free radicals, which then combine into final gaseous or liquid species.

[0113] The energy evolved by the energetic electrons may be varied by adjusting a variety of factors, such as: the number of active electrodes; electrode size and spacing; electrode surface area; asperities and sharp edges on the electrode surfaces; electrode materials; applied voltage and power; current limiting means, such as inductors; electrical conductivity of the fluid in contact with the electrodes; density of the fluid; and other factors. Accordingly, these factors can be manipulated to control the energy level of the excited electrons. Since different tissue structures have different molecular bonds, the present invention can be configured to break the molecular bonds of certain tissue, while having too low an energy to break the molecular bonds of other tissue. For example, fatty tissue, (e.g., adipose tissue) has double bonds that require a substantially higher energy level than 4 eV to 5 eV to break (typically on the order of about 8 eV). Accordingly, the present invention in its current configuration generally does not ablate or remove such fatty tissue. However, the present invention may be used to effectively ablate cells to release the inner fat content in a liquid form. Of course, factors may be changed such that these double bonds can also be broken in a similar fashion as the single bonds (e.g., by increasing voltage or changing the electrode configuration to increase the current density at the electrode tips). A more complete description of this phenomenon can be found in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/032,375, filed Feb. 27, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. CB-3), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0114] In yet other embodiments, the present invention provides systems, apparatus and methods for selectively removing tumors, e.g., facial tumors, or other undesirable body structures, while minimizing the spread of viable cells from the tumor. Conventional techniques for removing such tumors generally result in the production of smoke in the surgical setting, termed an electrosurgical or laser plume, which can spread intact, viable cells, bacteria, or viral particles from the tumor or lesion to the surgical team, or to other portions of the patient's body. This potential spread of viable cells or particles has resulted in increased concerns over the proliferation of certain debilitating and fatal diseases, such as hepatitis, herpes, HIV, and papillomavirus. In the present invention, high frequency voltage is applied between the active electrode(s) and one or more return electrode(s) to volumetrically remove at least a portion of the tissue cells in the tumor through the dissociation or disintegration of organic molecules into non-viable atoms and molecules. Specifically, the present invention converts the cellular components of solid tissue into non-condensable gases that are no longer intact or viable, and thus, incapable of spreading viable tumor cells, bacteria, or viral particles to other portions of the patient's body or to the surgical staff. The high frequency voltage is preferably selected to effect controlled removal of target tissue while minimizing substantial tissue necrosis to surrounding or underlying tissue. A more complete description of this phenomenon can be found in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/109,219, filed Jun. 30, 1998 (Attorney Docket No. CB-1), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0115] The electrosurgical probe or catheter of the present invention can comprise a shaft or a handpiece having a proximal end and a distal end which supports one or more active electrode(s). The shaft or handpiece may assume a wide variety of configurations, with the primary purpose being to mechanically support the active electrode and permit the treating physician to manipulate the electrode from a proximal end of the shaft. The shaft may be rigid or flexible, with flexible shafts optionally being combined with a generally rigid external tube for mechanical support. Flexible shafts may be combined with pull wires, shape memory actuators, and other known mechanisms for effecting selective deflection of the distal end of the shaft to facilitate positioning of the electrode(s) or electrode array. The shaft may include a plurality of wires or other conductive elements running axially therethrough to permit connection of the electrode array to a connector at the proximal end of the shaft.

[0116] For endoscopic procedures within the spine, the shaft will have a suitable diameter and length to allow the surgeon to reach the target site (e.g., a disc or vertebra) by delivering the shaft through the thoracic cavity, the abdomen or the like. Thus, the shaft will usually have a length in the range of about 5.0 cm to 30.0 cm, and a diameter in the range of about 0.2 mm to about 20 mm. Alternatively, the shaft may be delivered directly through the patient's back in a posterior approach, which would considerably reduce the required length of the shaft. In the case of cervical discs, the target tissue may be accessed in a posterior approach from the back of the neck. In any of these embodiments, the shaft may be introduced through rigid or flexible endoscopes, or via other introducer devices (e.g., an introducer needle). The shaft may be a flexible catheter that is introduced through a percutaneous penetration in the patient. Specific shaft designs will be described in detail in connection with the figures hereinafter.

[0117] In one embodiment, the probe may comprise a long, thin shaft (e.g., on the order of about 1 mm or less in diameter) that can be percutaneously introduced through the patient's back directly into the spine. The shaft includes one or more active electrode(s) for applying electrical energy to tissues of the vertebral column. The shaft may include one or more return electrode(s), or the return electrode may be positioned on the patient's back, as a dispersive pad. In either embodiment, sufficient electrical energy is applied to the active electrode(s) to either shrink the collagen fibers within the spinal disc, to ablate tissue within the disc, or to shrink supporting tissue surrounding the vertebrae.

[0118] The electrosurgical instrument may also be a catheter that is delivered percutaneously and/or endoluminally into the patient by insertion through a conventional or specialized guide catheter, or the invention may include a catheter having an active electrode or electrode array integral with its distal end. The catheter shaft may be rigid or flexible, with flexible shafts optionally being combined with a generally rigid external tube for mechanical support. Flexible shafts may be combined with pull wires, shape memory actuators, and other known mechanisms for effecting selective deflection of the distal end of the shaft to facilitate positioning of the electrode or electrode array. The catheter shaft will usually include a plurality of wires or other conductive elements running axially therethrough to permit connection of the electrode or electrode array and the return electrode to a connector at the proximal end of the catheter shaft. The catheter shaft may include a guide wire for guiding the catheter to the target site, or the catheter may comprise a steerable guide catheter. The catheter may also include a substantially rigid distal end portion to increase the torque control of the distal end portion as the catheter is advanced further into the patient's body. Specific shaft designs will be described in detail in connection with the figures hereinafter.

[0119] The active electrode(s) are preferably supported within or by an electrically insulating support positioned near the distal end of the instrument shaft. The return electrode may be located on the instrument shaft, on another instrument, or on the external surface of the patient (i.e., a dispersive pad). The close proximity of nerves and other sensitive tissue in and around the spinal cord, however, makes a bipolar design more preferable because this minimizes the current flow through non-target tissue and surrounding nerves. Accordingly, the return electrode is preferably either integrated with the instrument body, or another instrument located in close proximity thereto. The proximal end of the instrument(s) include the appropriate electrical connections for coupling the return electrode(s) and the active electrode(s) to a high frequency power supply, such as an electrosurgical generator.

[0120] In some embodiments, the active electrode(s) have an active portion or surface with surface geometries shaped to promote relatively high electric field intensity and associated current density along the leading edges of the electrodes. Suitable surface geometries may be obtained by creating electrode shapes that include preferential sharp edges, or by creating asperities or other surface roughness on the active surface(s) of the electrodes. Electrode shapes according to the present invention can include the use of formed wire (e.g., by drawing round wire through a shaping die) to form electrodes with a variety of cross-sectional shapes, such as square, rectangular, L or V shaped, or the like. Electrode edges may also be created by removing a portion of the elongate metal electrode to reshape the cross-section. For example, material can be ground along the length of a round or hollow wire electrode to form D or C shaped wires, respectively, with edges facing in the cutting direction. Alternatively, material can be removed at closely spaced intervals along the electrode length to form transverse grooves, slots, threads or the like along the electrodes.

[0121] Additionally or alternatively, the active electrode surface(s) may be modified through chemical, electrochemical or abrasive methods to create a multiplicity of surface asperities on the electrode surface. These surface asperities will promote high electric field intensities between the active electrode surface(s) and the target tissue to facilitate ablation or cutting of the tissue. For example, surface asperities may be created by etching the active electrodes with etchants having a pH less than 7.0, or by using a high velocity stream of abrasive particles (e.g., grit blasting) to create asperities on the surface of an elongated electrode. A more detailed description of such electrode configurations can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,843,019, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0122] The return electrode is typically spaced proximally from the active electrode(s) a suitable distance to avoid electrical shorting between the active and return electrodes in the presence of electrically conductive fluid. In most of the embodiments described herein, the distal edge of the exposed surface of the return electrode is spaced about 0.5 mm to 25 mm from the proximal edge of the exposed surface of the active electrode(s), preferably about 1.0 mm to 5.0 mm. Of course, this distance may vary with different voltage ranges, conductive fluids, and depending on the proximity of tissue structures to active and return electrodes. The return electrode will typically have an exposed length in the range of about 1 mm to 20 mm.

[0123] The current flow path between the active electrodes and the return electrode(s) may be generated by submerging the tissue site in an electrically conducting fluid (e.g., within a viscous fluid, such as an electrically conductive gel), or by directing an electrically conductive fluid along a fluid path to the target site (i.e., a liquid, such as isotonic saline, hypotonic saline; or a gas, such as argon). The conductive gel may also be delivered to the target site to achieve a slower more controlled delivery rate of conductive fluid. In addition, the viscous nature of the gel may allow the surgeon to more easily contain the gel around the target site (e.g., rather than attempting to contain isotonic saline). A more complete description of an exemplary method of directing electrically conductive fluid between the active and return electrodes is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,281, previously incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, the body's natural conductive fluids, such as blood or tissue fluids, may be sufficient to establish a conductive path between the return electrode(s) and the active electrode(s), and to provide the conditions for establishing a vapor layer, as described above. However, extraneous electrically conductive fluid that is introduced into the patient is generally preferred over blood because blood will tend to coagulate at certain temperatures. In addition, the patient's blood may not have sufficient electrical conductivity to adequately form a plasma in some applications. Advantageously, a liquid electrically conductive fluid (e.g., isotonic saline) may be used to concurrently “bathe” the target tissue surface to provide an additional means for removing any tissue, and to cool the region of the target tissue ablated in the previous moment.

[0124] The power supply, or generator, may include a fluid interlock for interrupting power to the active electrode(s) when there is insufficient conductive fluid around the active electrode(s). This ensures that the instrument will not be activated when conductive fluid is not present, minimizing the tissue damage that may otherwise occur. A more complete description of such a fluid interlock can be found in commonly assigned, co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 09/058,336, filed Apr. 10, 1998 (attorney Docket No. CB-4), the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0125] In some procedures, it may also be necessary to retrieve or aspirate the electrically conductive fluid and/or the non-condensable gaseous products of ablation. In addition, it may be desirable to aspirate small pieces of tissue or other body structures that are not completely disintegrated by the high frequency energy, or other fluids at the target site, such as blood, mucus, the gaseous products of ablation, etc. Accordingly, the system of the present invention may include one or more suction lumen(s) in the instrument, or on another instrument, coupled to a suitable vacuum source for aspirating fluids from the target site. In addition, the invention may include one or more aspiration electrode(s) coupled to the distal end of the suction lumen for ablating, or at least reducing the volume of, non-ablated tissue fragments that are aspirated into the lumen. The aspiration electrode(s) function mainly to inhibit clogging of the lumen that may otherwise occur as larger tissue fragments are drawn therein. The aspiration electrode(s) may be different from the ablation active electrode(s), or the same electrode(s) may serve both functions. A more complete description of instruments incorporating aspiration electrode(s) can be found in commonly assigned, co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/010,382 filed Jan. 21, 1998, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0126] As an alternative or in addition to suction, it may be desirable to contain the excess electrically conductive fluid, tissue fragments, and/or gaseous products of ablation at or near the target site with a containment apparatus, such as a basket, retractable sheath, or the like. This embodiment has the advantage of ensuring that the conductive fluid, tissue fragments or ablation products do not flow through the patient's vasculature or into other portions of the body. In addition, it may be desirable to limit the amount of suction to limit the undesirable effect suction may have on hemostasis of severed blood vessels.

[0127] The present invention may use a single active electrode or an array of active electrodes spaced around the distal surface of a catheter or probe. In the latter embodiment, the electrode array usually includes a plurality of independently current-limited and/or power-controlled active electrodes to apply electrical energy selectively to the target tissue while limiting the unwanted application of electrical energy to the surrounding tissue and environment resulting from power dissipation into surrounding electrically conductive fluids, such as blood, normal saline, and the like. The active electrodes may be independently current-limited by isolating the terminals from each other and connecting each terminal to a separate power source that is isolated from the other active electrodes. Alternatively, the active electrodes may be connected to each other at either the proximal or distal ends of the catheter to form a single wire that couples to a power source.

[0128] In one configuration, each individual active electrode in the electrode array is electrically insulated from all other active electrodes in the array within said instrument and is connected to a power source which is isolated from each of the other active electrodes in the array or to circuitry which limits or interrupts current flow to the active electrode when low resistivity material (e.g., blood, electrically conductive saline irrigant or electrically conductive gel) causes a lower impedance path between the return electrode and the individual active electrode. The isolated power sources for each individual active electrode may be separate power supply circuits having internal impedance characteristics which limit power to the associated active electrode when a low impedance return path is encountered. By way of example, the isolated power source may be a user selectable constant current source. In this embodiment, lower impedance paths will automatically result in lower resistive heating levels since the heating is proportional to the square of the operating current times the impedance. Alternatively, a single power source may be connected to each of the active electrodes through independently actuatable switches, or by independent current limiting elements, such as inductors, capacitors, resistors, and/or combinations thereof. The current limiting elements may be provided in the instrument, connectors, cable, controller, or along the conductive path from the controller to the distal tip of the instrument. Alternatively, the resistance and/or capacitance may occur on the surface of the active electrode(s) due to oxide layers which form selected active electrodes (e.g., titanium or a resistive coating on the surface of metal, such as platinum).

[0129] The tip region of the instrument may comprise many independent active electrodes designed to deliver electrical energy in the vicinity of the tip. The selective application of electrical energy to the conductive fluid is achieved by connecting each individual active electrode and the return electrode to a power source having independently controlled or current limited channels. The return electrode(s) may comprise a single tubular member of conductive material proximal to the electrode array at the tip which also serves as a conduit for the supply of the electrically conductive fluid between the active and return electrodes. Alternatively, the instrument may comprise an array of return electrodes at the distal tip of the instrument (together with the active electrodes) to maintain the electric current at the tip. The application of high frequency voltage between the return electrode(s) and the electrode array results in the generation of high electric field intensities at the distal tips of the active electrodes with conduction of high frequency current from each individual active electrode to the return electrode. The current flow from each individual active electrode to the return electrode(s) is controlled by either active or passive means, or a combination thereof, to deliver electrical energy to the surrounding conductive fluid while minimizing energy delivery to surrounding (non-target) tissue.

[0130] The application of a high frequency voltage between the return electrode(s) and the active electrode(s) for appropriate time intervals effects shrinking, cutting, removing, ablating, shaping, contracting, or otherwise modifying the target tissue. In some embodiments of the present invention, the tissue volume over which energy is dissipated (i.e., a high current density exists) may be more precisely controlled, for example, by the use of a multiplicity of small active electrodes whose effective diameters or principal dimensions range from about 0.01 mm to 10 mm, preferably from about 0.05 mm to 2 mm, and more preferably from about 0.1 mm to 1 mm. In this embodiment, electrode areas for both circular and non-circular terminals will have a contact area (per active electrode) below 50 mm² for electrode arrays and as large as 75 mm² for single electrode embodiments. In multiple electrode array embodiments, the contact area of each active electrode is typically in the range from 0.0001 mm² to 1 mm², and more preferably from 0.001 mm² to 0.5 mm². The circumscribed area of the electrode array or active electrode is in the range from 0.25 mm² to 75 mm², preferably from 0.5 mm² to 40 mm². In multiple electrode embodiments, the array will usually include at least two isolated active electrodes, often at least five active electrodes, often greater than 10 active electrodes, and even 50 or more active electrodes, disposed over the distal contact surfaces on the shaft. The use of small diameter active electrodes increases the electric field intensity and reduces the extent or depth of tissue heating as a consequence of the divergence of current flux lines which emanate from the exposed surface of each active electrode.

[0131] The area of the tissue treatment surface can vary widely, and the tissue treatment surface can assume a variety of geometries, with particular areas and geometries being selected for specific applications. The geometries can be planar, concave, convex, hemispherical, conical, linear “in-line” array or virtually any other regular or irregular shape. Most commonly, the active electrode(s) or active electrode(s) will be formed at the distal tip of the electrosurgical instrument shaft, frequently being planar, disk-shaped, or hemispherical surfaces for use in reshaping procedures or being linear arrays for use in cutting. Alternatively or additionally, the active electrode(s) may be formed on lateral surfaces of the electrosurgical instrument shaft (e.g., in the manner of a spatula), facilitating access to certain body structures in endoscopic procedures.

[0132] It should be clearly understood that the invention is not limited to electrically isolated active electrodes, or even to a plurality of active electrodes. For example, the array of active electrodes may be connected to a single lead that extends through the catheter shaft to a power source of high frequency current. Alternatively, the instrument may incorporate a single electrode that extends directly through the catheter shaft or is connected to a single lead that extends to the power source. The active electrode(s) may have ball shapes (e.g., for tissue vaporization and desiccation), twizzle shapes (for vaporization and needle-like cutting), spring shapes (for rapid tissue debulking and desiccation), twisted metal shapes, annular or solid tube shapes or the like. Alternatively, the electrode(s) may comprise a plurality of filaments, rigid or flexible brush electrode(s) (for debulking a tumor, such as a fibroid, bladder tumor or a prostate adenoma), side-effect brush electrode(s) on a lateral surface of the shaft, coiled electrode(s) or the like.

[0133] In some embodiments, the electrode support and the fluid outlet may be recessed from an outer surface of the instrument or handpiece to confine the electrically conductive fluid to the region immediately surrounding the electrode support. In addition, the shaft may be shaped so as to form a cavity around the electrode support and the fluid outlet. This helps to assure that the electrically conductive fluid will remain in contact with the active electrode(s) and the return electrode(s) to maintain the conductive path therebetween. In addition, this will help to maintain a vapor layer and subsequent plasma layer between the active electrode(s) and the tissue at the treatment site throughout the procedure, which reduces the thermal damage that might otherwise occur if the vapor layer were extinguished due to a lack of conductive fluid. Provision of the electrically conductive fluid around the target site also helps to maintain the tissue temperature at desired levels.

[0134] In other embodiments, the active electrodes are spaced from the tissue a sufficient distance to minimize or avoid contact between the tissue and the vapor layer formed around the active electrodes. In these embodiments, contact between the heated electrons in the vapor layer and the tissue is minimized as these electrons travel from the vapor layer back through the conductive fluid to the return electrode. The ions within the plasma, however, will have sufficient energy, under certain conditions such as higher voltage levels, to accelerate beyond the vapor layer to the tissue. Thus, the tissue bonds are dissociated or broken as in previous embodiments, while minimizing the electron flow, and thus the thermal energy, in contact with the tissue.

[0135] The electrically conductive fluid should have a threshold conductivity to provide a suitable conductive path between the return electrode and the active electrode(s). The electrical conductivity of the fluid (in units of millisiemens per centimeter or mS/cm) will usually be greater than 0.2 mS/cm, typically greater than 2 mS/cm, and more typically greater than 10 mS/cm. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrically conductive fluid is isotonic saline, which has a conductivity of about 17 mS/cm. Applicant has found that a more conductive fluid, or one with a higher ionic concentration, will usually provide a more aggressive ablation rate. For example, a saline solution with higher levels of sodium chloride than conventional saline (which is on the order of about 0.9% sodium chloride) e.g., on the order of greater than 1%, or between about 3% and 20%, may be desirable. Alternatively, the invention may be used with different types of conductive fluids that increase the power of the plasma layer by, for example, increasing the quantity of ions in the plasma, or by providing ions that have higher energy levels than sodium ions. For example, the present invention may be used with elements other than sodium, such as potassium, magnesium, calcium and other metals near the left end of the periodic chart. In addition, other electronegative elements may be used in place of chlorine, such as fluorine.

[0136] The voltage difference applied between the return electrode(s) and the active electrode(s) will be at high or radio frequency, typically between about 5 kHz and 20 MHz, usually being between about 30 kHz and 2.5 MHz, preferably being between about 50 kHz and 500 kHz, often less than 350 kHz, and often between about 100 kHz and 200 kHz. In some applications, applicant has found that a frequency of about 100 kHz is useful because the tissue impedance is much greater at this frequency. In other applications, such as procedures in or around the heart or head and neck, higher frequencies may be desirable (e.g., 400-600 kHz) to minimize low frequency current flow into the heart or the nerves of the head and neck. The RMS (root mean square) voltage applied will usually be in the range from about 5 volts RMS to 1000 volts RMS, preferably being in the range from about 10 volts RMS to 500 volts RMS, often between about 150 volts RMS to 400 volts RMS depending on the active electrode size, the operating frequency and the operation mode of the particular procedure or desired effect on the tissue (i.e., contraction, coagulation, cutting or ablation). Typically, the peak-to-peak voltage for ablation or cutting with a square wave form will be in the range of 10 volts to 2000 volts and preferably in the range of 100 volts to 1800 volts, and more preferably in the range of about 300 volts to 1500 volts, often in the range of about 300 volts to 800 volts peak to peak (again, depending on the electrode size, number of electrons, the operating frequency and the operation mode). Lower peak-to-peak voltages will be used for tissue coagulation, thermal heating of tissue, or collagen contraction and will typically be in the range from 50 to 1500, preferably 100 to 1000 and more preferably 120 to 400 volts peak-to-peak (again, these values are computed using a square wave form). Higher peak-to-peak voltages, e.g., greater than about 800 volts peak-to-peak, may be desirable for ablation of harder material, such as bone, depending on other factors, such as the electrode geometries and the composition of the conductive fluid.

[0137] As discussed above, the voltage is usually delivered in a series of voltage pulses or alternating current of time varying voltage amplitude with a sufficiently high frequency (e.g., on the order of 5 kHz to 20 MHz) such that the voltage is effectively applied continuously (as compared with e.g., lasers claiming small depths of necrosis, which are generally pulsed about 10 Hz to 20 Hz). In addition, the duty cycle (i.e., cumulative time in any one-second interval that energy is applied) is on the order of about 50% for the present invention, as compared with pulsed lasers which typically have a duty cycle of about 0.0001%.

[0138] The preferred power source of the present invention delivers a high frequency current selectable to generate average power levels ranging from several milliwatts to tens of watts per electrode, depending on the volume of target tissue being treated, and/or the maximum allowed temperature selected for the instrument tip. The power source allows the user to select the voltage level according to the specific requirements of a particular neurosurgery procedure, cardiac surgery, arthroscopic surgery, dermatological procedure, ophthalmic procedures, open surgery or other endoscopic surgery procedure. For cardiac procedures and potentially for neurosurgery, the power source may have an additional filter, for filtering leakage voltages at frequencies below 100 kHz, particularly voltages around 60 kHz. Alternatively, a power source having a higher operating frequency, e.g., 300 kHz to 600 kHz may be used in certain procedures in which stray low frequency currents may be problematic. A description of one suitable power source can be found in copending patent application Ser. Nos. 09/058,571 and 09/058,336, filed Apr. 10, 1998 (Attorney Docket Nos. CB-2 and CB-4), the complete disclosure of both applications are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

[0139] The power source may be current limited or otherwise controlled so that undesired heating of the target tissue or surrounding (non-target) tissue does not occur. In one embodiment of the present invention, current limiting inductors are placed in series with each independent active electrode, where the inductance of the inductor is in the range of 10 uH to 50,000 uH, depending on the electrical properties of the target tissue, the desired tissue heating rate and the operating frequency. Alternatively, capacitor-inductor (LC) circuit structures may be employed, as described previously in U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,909, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Additionally, current limiting resistors may be selected. Preferably, these resistors will have a large positive temperature coefficient of resistance so that, as the current level begins to rise for any individual active electrode in contact with a low resistance medium (e.g., saline irrigant or blood), the resistance of the current limiting resistor increases significantly, thereby minimizing the power delivery from said active electrode into the low resistance medium (e.g., saline irrigant or blood).

[0140] Referring to FIG. 1, an exemplary electrosurgical system 11 for treatment of tissue in the spine will now be described in detail. Electrosurgical system 11 generally comprises an electrosurgical handpiece or probe 10 connected to a power supply 28 for providing high frequency voltage to a target site, and a fluid source 21 for supplying electrically conductive fluid 50 to probe 10. In addition, electrosurgical system 11 may include an endoscope (not shown) with a fiber optic head light for viewing the surgical site. The endoscope may be integral with probe 10, or it may be part of a separate instrument. The system 11 may also include a vacuum source (not shown) for coupling to a suction lumen or tube 211 (see FIG. 4) in probe 10 for aspirating the target site.

[0141] As shown, probe 10 generally includes a proximal handle 19 and an elongate shaft 18 having an array 12 of active electrodes 58 at its distal end. A connecting cable 34 has a connector 26 for electrically coupling the active electrodes 58 to power supply 28. The active electrodes 58 are electrically isolated from each other and each of electrodes 58 is connected to an active or passive control network within power supply 28 by means of a plurality of individually insulated conductors (not shown). A fluid supply tube 15 is connected to a fluid tube 14 of probe 10 for supplying electrically conductive fluid 50 to the target site. Fluid supply tube 15 may be connected to a suitable pump (not shown), if desired.

[0142] Power supply 28 has an operator controllable voltage level adjustment 30 to change the applied voltage level, which is observable at a voltage level display 32. Power supply 28 also includes first, second and third foot pedals 37, 38, 39 and a cable 36 which is removably coupled to power supply 28. The foot pedals 37, 38, 39 allow the surgeon to remotely adjust the energy level applied to active electrodes 58. In an exemplary embodiment, first foot pedal 37 is used to place the power supply into the “ablation” mode and second foot pedal 38 places power supply 28 into the “subablation” mode (e.g., for coagulation or contraction of tissue). The third foot pedal 39 allows the user to adjust the voltage level within the “ablation” mode. In the ablation mode, a sufficient voltage is applied to the active electrodes to establish the requisite conditions for molecular dissociation of the tissue (i.e., vaporizing a portion of the electrically conductive fluid, ionizing charged particles within the vapor layer, and accelerating these charged particles against the tissue). As discussed above, the requisite voltage level for ablation will vary depending on the number, size, shape, and spacing of the electrodes, the distance to which the electrodes extend from the support member, etc. Once the surgeon places the power supply in the “ablation” mode, voltage level adjustment 30 or third foot pedal 39 may be used to adjust the voltage level to adjust the degree or aggressiveness of the ablation.

[0143] Of course, it will be recognized that the voltage and modality of the power supply may be controlled by other input devices. However, applicant has found that foot pedals are convenient methods of controlling the power supply while manipulating the probe during a surgical procedure.

[0144] In the sub-ablation mode, power supply 28 applies a low enough voltage to the active electrodes to avoid vaporization of the electrically conductive fluid and subsequent molecular dissociation of the tissue. The surgeon may automatically toggle power supply 28 between the ablation and sub-ablation modes by alternately stepping on foot pedals 37, 38, respectively. In some embodiments, this allows the surgeon to quickly move between coagulation/thermal heating and ablation in situ, without having to remove his/her concentration from the surgical field or without having to request an assistant to switch the power supply. By way of example, as the surgeon is sculpting soft tissue in the ablation mode, the probe typically will simultaneously seal and/or coagulate small severed vessels within the tissue. However, larger vessels, or vessels with high fluid pressures (e.g., arterial vessels) may not be sealed in the ablation mode. Accordingly, the surgeon can simply step on foot pedal 38, automatically lowering the voltage level below the threshold level for ablation, and apply sufficient pressure onto the severed vessel for a sufficient period of time to seal and/or coagulate the vessel. After this is completed, the surgeon may quickly move back into the ablation mode by stepping on foot pedal 37.

[0145] Referring now to FIGS. 2 and 3, a representative high frequency power supply for use according to the principles of the present invention will now be described. The high frequency power supply of the present invention is configured to apply a high frequency voltage of about 10 volts RMS to 500 volts RMS between one or more active electrodes (and/or coagulation electrode) and one or more return electrodes. In the exemplary embodiment, the power supply applies about 70 volts RMS to 350 volts RMS in the ablation mode and about 20 volts RMS to 90 volts RMS in a sub-ablation mode, preferably 45 volts RMS to 70 volts RMS in the subablation mode (these values will, of course, vary depending on the probe configuration attached to the power supply and the desired mode of operation).

[0146] The preferred power source of the present invention delivers a high frequency current selectable to generate average power levels ranging from several milliwatts to tens of watts per electrode, depending on the volume of target tissue being treated, and/or the maximum allowed temperature selected for the probe tip. The power supply allows the user to select the voltage level according to the specific requirements of a particular procedure, e.g., spinal surgery, arthroscopic surgery, dermatological procedure, ophthalmic procedures, open surgery, or other endoscopic surgery procedure.

[0147] As shown in FIG. 2, the power supply generally comprises a radio frequency (RF) power oscillator 70 having output connections for coupling via a power output signal 71 to the load impedance, which is represented by the electrode assembly when the electrosurgical probe is in use. In the representative embodiment, the RF oscillator operates at about 100 kHz. The RF oscillator is not limited to this frequency and may operate at frequencies of about 300 kHz to 600 kHz. In particular, for cardiac applications, the RF oscillator will preferably operate in the range of about 400 kHz to about 600 kHz. The RF oscillator will generally supply a square wave signal with a crest factor of about 1 to 2. Of course, this signal may be a sine wave signal or other suitable wave signal depending on the application and other factors, such as the voltage applied, the number and geometry of the electrodes, etc. The power output signal 71 is designed to incur minimal voltage decrease (i.e., sag) under load. This improves the applied voltage to the active electrodes and the return electrode, which improves the rate of volumetric removal (ablation) of tissue.

[0148] Power is supplied to RF oscillator 70 by a switching power supply 72 coupled between the power line and the RF oscillator rather than a conventional transformer. The switching power supply 72 allows power supply 28 to achieve high peak power output without the large size and weight of a bulky transformer. The architecture of the switching power supply also has been designed to reduce electromagnetic noise such that U.S. and foreign EMI requirements are met. This architecture comprises a zero voltage switching or crossing, which causes the transistors to turn ON and OFF when the voltage is zero. Therefore, the electromagnetic noise produced by the transistors switching is vastly reduced. In an exemplary embodiment, the switching power supply 72 operates at about 100 kHz.

[0149] A controller 74 coupled to the operator controls 73 (i.e., foot pedals and voltage selector) and display 76, is connected to a control input of the switching power supply 72 for adjusting the generator output power by supply voltage variation. The controller 74 may be a microprocessor or an integrated circuit. The power supply may also include one or more current sensors 75 for detecting the output current. The power supply is preferably housed within a metal casing which provides a durable enclosure for the electrical components therein. In addition, the metal casing reduces the electromagnetic noise generated within the power supply because the grounded metal casing functions as a “Faraday shield,” thereby shielding the environment from internal sources of electromagnetic noise.

[0150] The power supply generally comprises a main or mother board containing generic electrical components required for many different surgical procedures (e.g., arthroscopy, urology, general surgery, dermatology, neurosurgery, etc.), and a daughter board containing application specific current-limiting circuitry (e.g., inductors, resistors, capacitors and the like). The daughter board is coupled to the mother board by a detachable multi-pin connector to allow convenient conversion of the power supply to, e.g., applications requiring a different current limiting circuit design. For arthroscopy, for example, the daughter board preferably comprises a plurality of inductors of about 200 to 400 microhenries, usually about 300 microhenries, for each of the channels supplying current to the active electrodes 102 (see FIG. 4).

[0151] Alternatively, in one embodiment, current limiting inductors are placed in series with each independent active electrode, where the inductance of the inductor is in the range of 10 uH to 50,000 uH, depending on the electrical properties of the target tissue, the desired tissue heating rate and the operating frequency. Alternatively, capacitor-inductor (LC) circuit structures may be employed, as described previously in co-pending PCT application No. PCT/US94/05168, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Additionally, current limiting resistors may be selected. Preferably, these resistors will have a large positive temperature coefficient of resistance so that, as the current level begins to rise for any individual active electrode in contact with a low resistance medium (e.g., saline irrigant or conductive gel), the resistance of the current limiting resistor increases significantly, thereby minimizing the power delivery from the active electrode into the low resistance medium (e.g., saline irrigant or conductive gel). Power output signal 71 may also be coupled to a plurality of current limiting elements 96, which are preferably located on the daughter board since the current limiting elements may vary depending on the application. A more complete description of a representative power supply can be found in commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/058,571, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0152] FIGS. 4-6 illustrate an exemplary electrosurgical probe 20 constructed according to the principles of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 4, probe 20 generally includes an elongated shaft 100 which may be flexible or rigid, a handle 204 coupled to the proximal end of shaft 100 and an electrode support member 102 coupled to the distal end of shaft 100. Shaft 100 preferably comprises an electrically conducting material, usually metal, which is selected from the group comprising tungsten, stainless steel alloys, platinum or its alloys, titanium or its alloys, molybdenum or its alloys, and nickel or its alloys. In this embodiment, shaft 100 includes an electrically insulating jacket 108, which is typically formed as one or more electrically insulating sheaths or coatings, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, polyimide, and the like. The provision of the electrically insulating jacket over the shaft prevents direct electrical contact between these metal elements and any adjacent body structure or the surgeon. Such direct electrical contact between a body structure (e.g., tendon) and an exposed electrode could result in unwanted heating of the structure at the point of contact causing necrosis. Alternatively, the return electrode may comprise an annular band coupled to an insulating shaft and having a connector extending within the shaft to its proximal end.

[0153] Handle 204 typically comprises a plastic material that is easily molded into a suitable shape for handling by the surgeon. Handle 204 defines an inner cavity (not shown) that houses the electrical connections 250 (FIG. 6), and provides a suitable interface for connection to an electrical connecting cable distal portion 22 (see FIG. 1) Electrode support member 102 extends from the distal end of shaft 100 (usually about 1 mm to 20 mm), and provides support for a plurality of electrically isolated active electrodes 104 (see FIG. 5). As shown in FIG. 4, a fluid tube 233 extends through an opening in handle 204, and includes a connector 235 for connection to a fluid supply source, for supplying electrically conductive fluid to the target site. Depending on the configuration of the distal surface of shaft 100, fluid tube 233 may extend through a single lumen (not shown) in shaft 100, or it may be coupled to a plurality of lumens (also not shown) that extend through shaft 100 to a plurality of openings at its distal end. In the representative embodiment, tubing 239 is a tube that extends along the exterior of shaft 100 to a point just distal of return electrode 112 (see FIG. 5). In this embodiment, the fluid is directed through an opening 237 past return electrode 112 to the active electrodes 104. Probe 20 may also include a valve 17 (FIG. 1) or equivalent structure for controlling the flow rate of the electrically conductive fluid to the target site.

[0154] As shown in FIG. 4, the distal portion of shaft 100 is preferably bent to improve access to the operative site of the tissue being treated. Electrode support member 102 has a substantially planar tissue treatment surface 212 (FIG. 5) that is usually at an angle of about 10 degrees to 90 degrees relative to the longitudinal axis of shaft 100, preferably about 30 degrees to 60 degrees and more preferably about 45 degrees. In alternative embodiments, the distal portion of shaft 100 comprises a flexible material which can be deflected relative to the longitudinal axis of the shaft. Such deflection may be selectively induced by mechanical tension of a pull wire, for example, or by a shape memory wire that expands or contracts by externally applied temperature changes. A more complete description of this embodiment can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,909, the complete disclosure of which has previously been incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, the shaft 100 of the present invention may be bent by the physician to the appropriate angle using a conventional bending tool or the like.

[0155] In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 4 to 6, probe 20 includes a return electrode 112 for completing the current path between active electrodes 104 and a high frequency power supply 28 (see FIG. 1). As shown, return electrode 112 preferably comprises an exposed portion of shaft 100 shaped as an annular conductive band near the distal end of shaft 100 slightly proximal to tissue treatment surface 212 of electrode support member 102, typically about 0.5 mm to 10 mm and more preferably about 1 mm to 10 mm. Return electrode 112 or shaft 100 is coupled to a connector 258 that extends to the proximal end of probe 10/20, where it is suitably connected to power supply 28 (FIG. 1).

[0156] As shown in FIG. 4, return electrode 112 is not directly connected to active electrodes 104. To complete this current path so that active electrodes 104 are electrically connected to return electrode 112, an electrically conductive fluid (e.g., isotonic saline) is caused to flow therebetween. In the representative embodiment, the electrically conductive fluid is delivered through fluid tube 233 to opening 237, as described above. Alternatively, the conductive fluid may be delivered by a fluid delivery element (not shown) that is separate from probe 20. In arthroscopic surgery, for example, the target area of the joint will be flooded with isotonic saline and the probe 90 will be introduced into this flooded target area. Electrically conductive fluid can be continually re-supplied to maintain the conduction path between return electrode 112 and active electrodes 104. In other embodiments, the distal portion of probe 20 may be dipped into a source of electrically conductive fluid, such as a gel or isotonic saline, prior to positioning at the target site. Applicant has found that the surface tension of the fluid and/or the viscous nature of a gel allows the conductive fluid to remain around the active and return electrodes for long enough to complete its function according to the present invention, as described below. Alternatively, the conductive fluid, such as a gel, may be applied directly to the target site.

[0157] In alternative embodiments, the fluid path may be formed in probe 90 by, for example, an inner lumen or an annular gap between the return electrode and a tubular support member within shaft 100 (see FIGS. 8A and 8B). This annular gap may be formed near the perimeter of the shaft 100 such that the electrically conductive fluid tends to flow radially inward towards the target site, or it may be formed towards the center of shaft 100 so that the fluid flows radially outward. In both of these embodiments, a fluid source (e.g., a bag of fluid elevated above the surgical site or having a pumping device), is coupled to probe 90 via a fluid supply tube (not shown) that may or may not have a controllable valve. A more complete description of an electrosurgical probe incorporating one or more fluid lumen(s) can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,697,281, the complete disclosure of which has previously been incorporated herein by reference.

[0158] Referring to FIG. 5, the electrically isolated active electrodes 104 are spaced apart over tissue treatment surface 212 of electrode support member 102. The tissue treatment surface and individual active electrodes 104 will usually have dimensions within the ranges set forth above. In the representative embodiment, the tissue treatment surface 212 has a circular cross-sectional shape with a diameter in the range of 1 mm to 20 mm. The individual active electrodes 104 preferably extend outward from tissue treatment surface 212 by a distance of about 0.1 mm to 4 mm, usually about 0.2 mm to 2 mm. Applicant has found that this configuration increases the high electric field intensities and associated current densities around active electrodes 104 to facilitate the ablation and shrinkage of tissue as described in detail above. In the embodiment of FIGS. 4 to 6, the probe includes a single, larger opening 209 in the center of tissue treatment surface 212, and a plurality of active electrodes (e.g., about 3-15) around the perimeter of surface 212 (see FIG. 5). Alternatively, the probe may include a single, annular, or partially annular, active electrode at the perimeter of the tissue treatment surface. The central opening 209 is coupled to a suction lumen (not shown) within shaft 100 and a suction tube 211 (FIG. 4) for aspirating tissue, fluids and/or gases from the target site. In this embodiment, the electrically conductive fluid generally flows radially inward past active electrodes 104 and then back through the opening 209. Aspirating the electrically conductive fluid during surgery allows the surgeon to see the target site, and it prevents the fluid from flowing into the patient's body.

[0159] Of course, it will be recognized that the distal tip of an electrosurgical probe of the invention, e.g. probe 10/20/90, may have a variety of different configurations. For example, the probe may include a plurality of openings 209 around the outer perimeter of tissue treatment surface 212 (see FIG. 7B). In this embodiment, the active electrodes 104 extend distally from the center of tissue treatment surface 212 such that they are located radially inward from openings 209. The openings are suitably coupled to fluid tube 233 for delivering electrically conductive fluid to the target site, and suction tube 211 for aspirating the fluid after it has completed the conductive path between the return electrode 112 and the active electrodes 104.

[0160]FIG. 6 illustrates the electrical connections 250 within handle 204 for coupling active electrodes 104 and return electrode 112 to the power supply 28. As shown, a plurality of wires 252 extend through shaft 100 to couple active electrodes 104 to a plurality of pins 254, which are plugged into a connector block 256 for coupling to a connecting cable distal end 22 (FIG. 1). Similarly, return electrode 112 is coupled to connector block 256 via a wire 258 and a plug 260.

[0161] According to the present invention, the probe 20 further includes an identification element that is characteristic of the particular electrode assembly so that the same power supply 28 can be used for different electrosurgical operations. In one embodiment, for example, the probe (e.g., 20) includes a voltage reduction element or a voltage reduction circuit for reducing the voltage applied between the active electrodes 104 and the return electrode 112. The voltage reduction element serves to reduce the voltage applied by the power supply so that the voltage between the active electrodes and the return electrode is low enough to avoid excessive power dissipation into the electrically conducting medium and/or ablation of the soft tissue at the target site. In some embodiments, the voltage reduction element allows the power supply 28 to apply two different voltages simultaneously to two different electrodes (see FIG. 15D). In other embodiments, the voltage reduction element primarily allows the electrosurgical probe to be compatible with various electrosurgical generators supplied by ArthroCare Corporation (Sunnyvale, Calif.) that are adapted to apply higher voltages for ablation or vaporization of tissue. For thermal heating or coagulation of tissue, for example, the voltage reduction element will serve to reduce a voltage of about 100 volts RMS to 170 volts RMS (which is a setting of 1 or 2 on the ArthroCare Model 970 and 980 (i.e., 2000) Generators) to about 45 volts RMS to 60 volts RMS, which is a suitable voltage for coagulation of tissue without ablation (e.g., molecular dissociation) of the tissue.

[0162] Of course, for some procedures, the probe will typically not require a voltage reduction element. Alternatively, the probe may include a voltage increasing element or circuit, if desired. Alternatively or additionally, the cable 34 and/or cable distal end 22 that couples the power supply 28 to the probe may be used as a voltage reduction element. The cable has an inherent capacitance that can be used to reduce the power supply voltage if the cable is placed into the electrical circuit between the power supply, the active electrodes and the return electrode. In this embodiment, the cable distal end 22 may be used alone, or in combination with one of the voltage reduction elements discussed above, e.g., a capacitor. Further, it should be noted that the present invention can be used with a power supply that is adapted to apply a voltage within the selected range for treatment of tissue. In this embodiment, a voltage reduction element or circuitry may not be desired.

[0163] FIGS. 8A-8C schematically illustrate the distal portion of three different embodiments of probe 90 according to the present invention. As shown in FIG. 8A, active electrodes 104 are anchored in a support matrix 102′ of suitable insulating material (e.g., silicone or a ceramic or glass material, such as alumina, zirconia and the like) which could be formed at the time of manufacture in a flat, hemispherical or other shape according to the requirements of a particular procedure. The preferred support matrix material is alumina, available from Kyocera Industrial Ceramics Corporation, Elkgrove, Ill., because of its high thermal conductivity, good electrically insulative properties, high flexural modulus, resistance to carbon tracking, biocompatibility, and high melting point. The support matrix 102′ is adhesively joined to a tubular support member 78 that extends most or all of the distance between matrix 102′ and the proximal end of probe 90. Tubular member 78 preferably comprises an electrically insulating material, such as an epoxy or silicone-based material.

[0164] In a preferred construction technique, active electrodes 104 extend through preformed openings in the support matrix 102′ so that they protrude above tissue treatment surface 212 by the desired distance. The electrodes are then bonded to the tissue treatment surface 212 of support matrix 102′, typically by an inorganic sealing material 80. Sealing material 80 is selected to provide effective electrical insulation, and good adhesion to both support matrix 102′ and the platinum or titanium active electrodes. Sealing material 80 additionally should have a compatible thermal expansion coefficient and a melting point well below that of platinum or titanium and alumina or zirconia, typically being a glass or glass ceramic.

[0165] In the embodiment shown in FIG. 8A, return electrode 112 comprises an annular member positioned around the exterior of shaft 100 of probe 90. Return electrode 112 may fully or partially circumscribe tubular support member 78 to form an annular gap 54 therebetween for flow of electrically conductive liquid 50 therethrough, as discussed below. Gap 54 preferably has a width in the range of 0.25 mm to 4 mm. Alternatively, probe 90 may include a plurality of longitudinal ribs between support member 78 and return electrode 112 to form a plurality of fluid lumens extending along the perimeter of shaft 100. In this embodiment, the plurality of lumens will extend to a plurality of openings.

[0166] Return electrode 112 is disposed within an electrically insulative jacket 118, which is typically formed as one or more electrically insulative sheaths or coatings, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, polyimide, and the like. The provision of the electrically insulative jacket 118 over return electrode 112 prevents direct electrical contact between return electrode 112 and any adjacent body structure. Such direct electrical contact between a body structure (e.g., tendon) and an exposed return electrode 112 could result in unwanted heating and necrosis of the structure at the point of contact.

[0167] As shown in FIG. 8A, return electrode 112 is not directly connected to active electrodes 104. To complete this current path so that terminals 104 are electrically connected to return electrode 112, electrically conducting liquid 50 (e.g., isotonic saline) is caused to flow along fluid path(s) 83. Fluid path 83 is formed by annular gap 54 between return electrode 112 and tubular support member 78. The electrically conducting liquid 50 flowing through fluid path 83 provides a pathway for electrical current flow between active electrodes 104 and return electrode 112, as illustrated by the current flux lines 60 in FIG. 8A. When a voltage difference is applied between active electrodes 104 and return electrode 112, high electric field intensities will be generated at the distal tips of active electrodes 104 with current flow from active electrodes 104 through the target tissue to return electrode 112, the high electric field intensities causing ablation of tissue 52 in zone 88.

[0168]FIG. 8B illustrates another alternative embodiment of electrosurgical probe 90 which has a return electrode 112 positioned within tubular member 78. Return electrode 112 is preferably a tubular member defining an inner lumen 57 for allowing electrically conducting liquid 50 (e.g., isotonic saline) to flow therethrough in electrical contact with return electrode 112. In this embodiment, a voltage difference is applied between active electrodes 104 and return electrode 112 resulting in electrical current flow through the electrically conducting liquid 50 as shown by current flux lines 60. As a result of the applied voltage difference and concomitant high electric field intensities at the tips of active electrodes 104, tissue 52 becomes ablated or transected in zone 88.

[0169]FIG. 8C illustrates another embodiment of probe 90 that is a combination of the embodiments in FIGS. 8A and 8B. As shown, this probe includes both an inner lumen 57 and an outer gap or plurality of outer lumens 54 for flow of electrically conductive fluid. In this embodiment, the return electrode 112 may be positioned within tubular member 78 as in FIG. 8B, outside of tubular member 78 as in FIG. 8A, or in both locations.

[0170] In some embodiments, the probe 20/90 will also include one or more aspiration electrode(s) coupled to the aspiration lumen for inhibiting clogging during aspiration of tissue fragments from the surgical site. As shown in FIG. 9, one or more of the active electrodes 104 may comprise loop electrodes 140 that extend across distal opening 209 of the suction lumen within shaft 100. In the representative embodiment, two of the active electrodes 104 comprise loop electrodes 140 that cross over the distal opening 209. Of course, it will be recognized that a variety of different configurations are possible, such as a single loop electrode, or multiple loop electrodes having different configurations than shown. In addition, the electrodes may have shapes other than loops, such as the coiled configurations shown in FIGS. 10 and 11. Alternatively, the electrodes may be formed within suction lumen proximal to the distal opening 209, as shown in FIG. 13. The main function of loop electrodes 140 is to ablate portions of tissue that are drawn into the suction lumen to prevent clogging of the lumen.

[0171] In some embodiments, loop electrodes 140 are electrically isolated from the other active electrodes 104. In other embodiments, the loop electrodes 140 and active electrodes 104 may be electrically connected to each other such that both are activated together. Loop electrodes 140 may or may not be electrically isolated from each other. Loop electrodes 140 will usually extend only about 0.05 mm to 4 mm, preferably about 0.1 mm to 1 mm from the tissue treatment surface of electrode support member 102.

[0172] Referring now to FIGS. 10 and 11, alternative embodiments for aspiration electrodes will now be described. As shown in FIG. 10, the aspiration electrodes may comprise a pair of coiled electrodes 150 that extend across distal opening 209 of the suction lumen. The larger surface area of the coiled electrodes 150 usually increases the effectiveness of the electrodes 150 in ablating tissue fragments which may approach or pass through opening 209. In FIG. 11, the aspiration electrode comprises a single coiled electrode 154 extending across the distal opening 209 of the suction lumen. This single electrode 152 may be sufficient to inhibit clogging of the suction lumen. Alternatively, the aspiration electrodes may be positioned within the suction lumen proximal to the distal opening 209. Preferably, these electrodes are close to opening 209 so that tissue does not clog the opening 209 before it reaches electrodes 154. In this embodiment, a separate return electrode (not shown) may be provided within the suction lumen to confine the electric currents therein.

[0173] Referring to FIG. 12, another embodiment of the present invention incorporates a wire mesh electrode 600 extending across the distal portion of aspiration lumen 162. As shown, mesh electrode 600 includes a plurality of openings 602 to allow fluids and tissue fragments to flow therethrough into aspiration lumen 162. The size of the openings 602 will vary depending on a variety of factors. The mesh electrode may be coupled to the distal or proximal surfaces of support member 102. Wire mesh electrode 600 comprises a conductive material, such as titanium, tantalum, steel, stainless steel, tungsten, copper, gold or the like. In the representative embodiment, wire mesh electrode 600 comprises a different material having a different electric potential than the active electrode(s) 104. Preferably, mesh electrode 600 comprises steel and active electrode(s) 104 comprises tungsten. Applicant has found that a slight variance in the electrochemical potential of mesh electrode 600 and active electrode(s) 104 improves the performance of the device. Of course, it will be recognized that mesh electrode 600 may be electrically insulated from active electrode(s) 104, as in previous embodiments.

[0174] Referring to FIG. 13, another embodiment of the present invention incorporates an aspiration electrode 160 within an aspiration lumen 162 of the probe. As shown, the electrode 160 is positioned just proximal of distal opening 209 so that the tissue fragments are ablated as they enter lumen 162. In the representative embodiment, aspiration electrode 160 comprises a loop electrode that extends across the aspiration lumen 162. However, it will be recognized that many other configurations are possible. In this embodiment, the return electrode 164 is located towards the exterior of the shaft, as in the previously described embodiments. Alternatively, the return electrode(s) may be located within the aspiration lumen 162 with the aspiration electrode 160. For example, the inner insulating coating 163 may be exposed at portions within the lumen 162 to provide a conductive path between this exposed portion of return electrode 164 and the aspiration electrode 160. The latter embodiment has the advantage of confining the electric currents to within the aspiration lumen. In addition, in dry fields in which the conductive fluid is delivered to the target site, it is usually easier to maintain a conductive fluid path between the active and return electrodes in the latter embodiment because the conductive fluid is aspirated through the aspiration lumen 162 along with the tissue fragments.

[0175] Referring now to FIGS. 14A-14C, an alternative embodiment incorporating a metal screen 610 is illustrated. As shown, metal screen 610 has a plurality of peripheral openings 612 for receiving active electrodes 104, and a plurality of inner openings 614 for allowing aspiration of fluid and tissue through an opening 609 of the aspiration lumen. As shown, screen 610 is press fitted over active electrodes 104 and then adhered to shaft 100 of probe 20/90. Similar to the mesh electrode embodiment, metal screen 610 may comprise a variety of conductive metals, such as titanium, tantalum, steel, stainless steel, tungsten, copper, gold or the like. In the representative embodiment, metal screen 610 is coupled directly to, or integral with, active electrode(s) 104. In this embodiment, the active electrode(s) 104 and the metal screen 610 are electrically coupled to each other.

[0176]FIGS. 15A to 15D illustrate embodiments of an electrosurgical probe 350 specifically designed for the treatment of herniated or diseased spinal discs. Referring to FIG. 15A, probe 350 comprises an electrically conductive shaft 352, a handle 354 coupled to the proximal end of shaft 352 and an electrically insulating support member 356 at the distal end of shaft 352. Probe 350 further includes a shrink wrapped insulating sleeve 358 over shaft 352, and an exposed portion of shaft 352 that functions as the return electrode 360. In the representative embodiment, probe 350 comprises a plurality of active electrodes 362 extending from the distal end of support member 356. As shown, return electrode 360 is spaced a further distance from active electrodes 362 than in the embodiments described above. In this embodiment, the return electrode 360 is spaced a distance of about 2.0 mm to 50 mm, preferably about 5 mm to 25 mm from active electrodes 362. In addition, return electrode 360 has a larger exposed surface area than in previous embodiments, having a length in the range of about 2.0 mm to 40 mm, preferably about 5 mm to 20 mm. Accordingly, electric current passing from active electrodes 362 to return electrode 360 will follow a current flow path 370 that is further away from shaft 352 than in the previous embodiments. In some applications, this current flow path 370 results in a deeper current penetration into the surrounding tissue with the same voltage level, and thus increased thermal heating of the tissue. As discussed above, this increased thermal heating may have advantages in some applications of treating disc or other spinal abnormalities. Typically, it is desired to achieve a tissue temperature in the range of about 60° C. to 100° C. to a depth of about 0.2 mm to 5 mm, usually about 1 mm to 2 mm. The voltage required for this thermal damage will partly depend on the electrode configurations, the conductivity of the tissue and the area immediately surrounding the electrodes, the time period in which the voltage is applied and the depth of tissue damage desired. With the electrode configurations described in FIGS. 15A-15D, the voltage level for thermal heating will usually be in the range of about 20 volts RMS to 300 volts RMS, preferably about 60 volts RMS to 200 volts RMS. The peak-to-peak voltages for thermal heating with a square wave form having a crest factor of about 2 are typically in the range of about 40 to 600 volts peak-to-peak, preferably about 120 to 400 volts peak-to-peak. The higher the voltage is within this range, the less time required. If the voltage is too high, however, the surface tissue may be vaporized, debulked or ablated, which is undesirable.

[0177] In alternative embodiments, the electrosurgical system used in conjunction with probe 350 may include a dispersive return electrode 450 (see FIG. 16) for switching between bipolar and monopolar modes. in this embodiment, the system will switch between an ablation mode, where the dispersive pad 450 is deactivated and voltage is applied between active and return electrodes 362, 360, and a sub-ablation or thermal heating mode, where the active electrode(s) 362 are deactivated and voltage is applied between the dispersive pad 450 and the return electrode 360. In the sub-ablation mode, a lower voltage is typically applied and the return electrode 360 functions as the active electrode to provide thermal heating and/or coagulation of tissue surrounding return electrode 360.

[0178]FIG. 15B illustrates yet another embodiment of the present invention. As shown, electrosurgical probe 350 comprises an electrode assembly 372 having one or more active electrode(s) 362 and a proximally spaced return electrode 360 as in previous embodiments. Return electrode 360 is typically spaced about 0.5 mm to 25 mm, preferably 1.0 mm to 5.0 mm from the active electrode(s) 362, and has an exposed length of about 1 mm to 20 mm. In addition, electrode assembly 372 includes two additional electrodes 374, 376 spaced axially on either side of return electrode 360. Electrodes 374, 376 are typically spaced about 0.5 mm to 25 mm, preferably about 1 mm to 5 mm from return electrode 360. In the representative embodiment, the additional electrodes 374, 376 are exposed portions of shaft 352, and the return electrode 360 is electrically insulated from shaft 352 such that a voltage difference may be applied between electrodes 374, 376 and electrode 360. In this embodiment, probe 350 may be used in at least two different modes, an ablation mode and a sub-ablation or thermal heating mode. In the ablation mode, voltage is applied between active electrode(s) 362 and return electrode 360 in the presence of electrically conductive fluid, as described above. In the ablation mode, electrodes 374, 376 are deactivated. In the thermal heating or coagulation mode, active electrode(s) 362 are deactivated and a voltage difference is applied between electrodes 374, 376 and electrode 360 such that a high frequency current 370 flows therebetween, as shown in FIG. 15B. In the thermal heating mode, a lower voltage is typically applied below the threshold for plasma formation and ablation, but sufficient to cause some thermal damage to the tissue immediately surrounding the electrodes without vaporizing or otherwise debulking this tissue so that the current 370 provides thermal heating and/or coagulation of tissue surrounding electrodes 360, 372, 374.

[0179]FIG. 15C illustrates another embodiment of probe 350 incorporating an electrode assembly 372 having one or more active electrode(s) 362 and a proximally spaced return electrode 360 as in previous embodiments. Return electrode 360 is typically spaced about 0.5 mm to 25 mm, preferably 1.0 mm to 5.0 mm from the active electrode(s) 362, and has an exposed length of about 1 mm to 20 mm. In addition, electrode assembly 372 includes a second active electrode 380 separated from return electrode 360 by an electrically insulating spacer 382. In this embodiment, handle 354 includes a switch 384 for toggling probe 350 between at least two different modes, an ablation mode and a sub-ablation or thermal heating mode. In the ablation mode, voltage is applied between active electrode(s) 362 and return electrode 360 in the presence of electrically conductive fluid, as described above. In the ablation mode, electrode 380 is deactivated. In the thermal heating or coagulation mode, active electrode(s) 362 may be deactivated and a voltage difference is applied between electrode 380 and electrode 360 such that a high frequency current 370 flows therebetween. Alternatively, active electrode(s) 362 may not be deactivated as the higher resistance of the smaller electrodes may automatically send the electric current to electrode 380 without having to physically decouple electrode(s) 362 from the circuit. In the thermal heating mode, a lower voltage is typically applied below the threshold for plasma formation and ablation, but sufficient to cause some thermal damage to the tissue immediately surrounding the electrodes without vaporizing or otherwise debulking this tissue so that the current 370 provides thermal heating and/or coagulation of tissue surrounding electrodes 360, 380.

[0180] Of course, it will be recognized that a variety of other embodiments may be used to accomplish similar functions as the embodiments described above. For example, electrosurgical probe 350 may include a plurality of helical bands formed around shaft 352, with one or more of the helical bands having an electrode coupled to the portion of the band such that one or more electrodes are formed on shaft 352 spaced axially from each other.

[0181]FIG. 15D illustrates another embodiment of the invention designed for channeling through tissue and creating lesions therein to treat spinal discs and/or snoring and sleep apnea. As shown, probe 350 is similar to the probe in FIG. 15C having a return electrode 360 and a third, coagulation electrode 380 spaced proximally from the return electrode 360. In this embodiment, active electrode 362 comprises a single electrode wire extending distally from insulating support member 356. Of course, the active electrode 362 may have a variety of configurations to increase the current densities on its surfaces, e.g., a conical shape tapering to a distal point, a hollow cylinder, loop electrode and the like. In the representative embodiment, support members 356 and 382 are constructed of a material, such as ceramic, glass, silicone and the like. The proximal support member 382 may also comprise a more conventional organic material as this support member 382 will generally not be in the presence of a plasma that would otherwise etch or wear away an organic material.

[0182] The probe 350 in FIG. 15D does not include a switching element. In this embodiment, all three electrodes are activated when the power supply is activated. The return electrode 360 has an opposite polarity from the active and coagulation electrodes 362, 380 such that current 370 flows from the latter electrodes to the return electrode 360 as shown. In the preferred embodiment, the electrosurgical system includes a voltage reduction element or a voltage reduction circuit for reducing the voltage applied between the coagulation electrode 380 and return electrode 360. The voltage reduction element allows the power supply 28 to, in effect, apply two different voltages simultaneously to two different electrodes. Thus, for channeling through tissue, the operator may apply a voltage sufficient to provide ablation of the tissue at the tip of the probe (i.e., tissue adjacent to the active electrode 362). At the same time, the voltage applied to the coagulation electrode 380 will be insufficient to ablate tissue. For thermal heating or coagulation of tissue, for example, the voltage reduction element will serve to reduce a voltage of about 100 volts RMS to 300 volts RMS to about 45 volts RMS to 90 volts RMS, which is a suitable voltage for coagulation of tissue without ablation (e.g., molecular dissociation) of the tissue.

[0183] In the representative embodiment, the voltage reduction element comprises a pair of capacitors forming a bridge divider(not shown) coupled to the power supply and coagulation electrode 380. The capacitors usually have a capacitance of about 200 pF to 500 pF (at 500 volts) and preferably about 300 pF to 350 pF (at 500 volts). Of course, the capacitors may be located in other places within the system, such as in, or distributed along the length of, the cable, the generator, the connector, etc. In addition, it will be recognized that other voltage reduction elements, such as diodes, transistors, inductors, resistors, capacitors or combinations thereof, may be used in conjunction with the present invention. For example, the probe 350 may include a coded resistor (not shown) that is constructed to lower the voltage applied between the return and coagulation electrodes 360, 380, respectively. In addition, electrical circuits may be employed for this purpose.

[0184] Of course, for some procedures, the probe will typically not require a voltage reduction element. Alternatively, the probe may include a voltage increasing element or circuit, if desired. Alternatively or additionally, cable 22/34 that couples power supply 28 to the probe 90 may be used as a voltage reduction element. The cable has an inherent capacitance that can be used to reduce the power supply voltage if the cable is placed into the electrical circuit between the power supply, the active electrodes and the return electrode. In this embodiment, cable 22/34 may be used alone, or in combination with one of the voltage reduction elements discussed above, e.g., a capacitor. Further, it should be noted that the present invention can be used with a power supply that is adapted to apply two different voltages within the selected range for treatment of tissue. In this embodiment, a voltage reduction element or circuitry may not be desired.

[0185] In one specific embodiment, the probe 350 is manufactured by first inserting an electrode wire (active electrode 362) through a ceramic tube (insulating member 356) such that a distal portion of the wire extends through the distal portion of the tube, and bonding the wire to the tube, typically with an appropriate epoxy. A stainless steel tube (return electrode 360) is then placed over the proximal portion of the ceramic tube, and a wire (e.g., nickel wire) is bonded, typically by spot welding, to the inside surface of the stainless steel tube. The stainless steel tube is coupled to the ceramic tube by epoxy, and the device is cured in an oven or other suitable heat source. A second ceramic tube (insulating member 382) is then placed inside of the proximal portion of the stainless steel tube, and bonded in a similar manner. The shaft 358 is then bonded to the proximal portion of the second ceramic tube, and an insulating sleeve (e.g. polyimide) is wrapped around shaft 358 such that only a distal portion of the shaft is exposed (i.e., coagulation electrode 380). The nickel wire connection will extend through the center of shaft 358 to connect return electrode 360 to the power supply. The active electrode 362 may form a distal portion of shaft 358, or it may also have a connector extending through shaft 358 to the power supply.

[0186] In use, the physician positions active electrode 362 adjacent to the tissue surface to be treated (i.e., a spinal disc). The power supply is activated to provide an ablation voltage between active and return electrodes 362, 360, respectively, and a coagulation or thermal heating voltage between coagulation and return electrodes 380, 360, respectively. An electrically conductive fluid can then be provided around active electrode 362, and in the junction between the active and return electrodes 360, 362 to provide a current flow path therebetween. This may be accomplished in a variety of manners, as discussed above. The active electrode 362 is then advanced through the space left by the ablated tissue to form a channel in the disc. During ablation, the electric current between the coagulation and return electrode is typically insufficient to cause any damage to the surface of the tissue as these electrodes pass through the tissue surface into the channel created by active electrode 362. Once the physician has formed the channel to the appropriate depth, he or she will cease advancement of the active electrode, and will either hold the instrument in place for approximately 5 seconds to 30 seconds, or can immediately remove the distal tip of the instrument from the channel (see detailed discussion of this below). In either event, when the active electrode is no longer advancing, it will eventually stop ablating tissue.

[0187] Prior to entering the channel formed by the active electrode 362, an open circuit exists between return and coagulation electrodes 360, 380. Once coagulation electrode 380 enters this channel, electric current will flow from coagulation electrode 380, through the tissue surrounding the channel, to return electrode 360. This electric current will heat the tissue immediately surrounding the channel to coagulate any severed vessels at the surface of the channel. If the physician desires, the instrument may be held within the channel for a period of time to create a lesion around the channel, as discussed in more detail below.

[0188]FIG. 16 illustrates yet another embodiment of an electrosurgical system 440 incorporating a dispersive return pad 450 attached to the electrosurgical probe 400. In this embodiment, the invention functions in the bipolar mode as described above. In addition, the system 440 may function in a monopolar mode in which a high frequency voltage difference is applied between the active electrode(s) 410, and the dispersive return pad 450. In the exemplary embodiment, the pad 450 and the probe 400 are coupled together, and are both disposable, single-use items. The pad 450 includes an electrical connector 452 that extends into handle 404 of probe 400 for direct connection to the power supply. Of course, the invention would also be operable with a standard return pad that connects directly to the power supply. In this embodiment, the power supply 460 will include a switch, e.g., a foot pedal 462, for switching between the monopolar and bipolar modes. In the bipolar mode, the return path on the power supply is coupled to return electrode 408 on probe 400, as described above. In the monopolar mode, the return path on the power supply is coupled to connector 452 of pad 450, active electrode(s) 410 are decoupled from the electrical circuit, and return electrode 408 functions as the active electrode. This allows the surgeon to switch between bipolar and monopolar modes during, or prior to, the surgical procedure. In some cases, it may be desirable to operate in the monopolar mode to provide deeper current penetration and, thus, a greater thermal heating of the tissue surrounding the return electrodes. In other cases, such as ablation of tissue, the bipolar modality may be preferable to limit the current penetration to the tissue.

[0189] In one configuration, the dispersive return pad 450 is adapted for coupling to an external surface of the patient in a region substantially close to the target region. For example, during the treatment of tissue in the head and neck, the dispersive return pad is designed and constructed for placement in or around the patient's shoulder, upper back or upper chest region. This design limits the current path through the patient's body to the head and neck area, which minimizes the damage that may be generated by unwanted current paths in the patient's body, particularly by limiting current flow through the patient's heart. The return pad is also designed to minimize the current densities at the pad, to thereby minimize patient skin burns in the region where the pad is attached.

[0190] Referring to FIG. 17, the electrosurgical system according to the present invention may also be configured as a catheter system 400. As shown in FIG. 17, a catheter system 400 generally comprises an electrosurgical catheter 460 connected to a power supply 28 by an interconnecting cable 486 for providing high frequency voltage to a target tissue and an irrigant reservoir or source 600 for providing electrically conductive fluid to the target site. Catheter 460 generally comprises an elongate, flexible shaft body 462 including a tissue removing or ablating region 464 at the distal end of body 462. The proximal portion of catheter 460 includes a multi-lumen fitment 614 which provides for interconnections between lumens and electrical leads within catheter 460 and conduits and cables proximal to fitment 614. By way of example, a catheter electrical connector 496 is removably connected to a distal cable connector 494 which, in turn, is removably connectable to generator 28 through connector 492. One or more electrically conducting lead wires (not shown) within catheter 460 extend between one or more active electrodes 463 and a coagulation electrode 467 at tissue ablating region 464 and one or more corresponding electrical terminals (also not shown) in catheter connector 496 via active electrode cable branch 487. Similarly, a return electrode 466 at tissue ablating region 464 is coupled to a return electrode cable branch 489 of catheter connector 496 by lead wires (not shown). Of course, a single cable branch (not shown) may be used for both active and return electrodes.

[0191] Catheter body 462 may include reinforcing fibers or braids (not shown) in the walls of at least the distal ablation region 464 of body 462 to provide responsive torque control for rotation of active electrodes during tissue engagement. This rigid portion of the catheter body 462 preferably extends only about 7 mm to 10 mm while the remainder of the catheter body 462 is flexible to provide good trackability during advancement and positioning of the electrodes adjacent target tissue.

[0192] In some embodiments, conductive fluid 50 is provided to tissue ablation region 464 of catheter 460 via a lumen (not shown in FIG. 17) within catheter 460. Fluid is supplied to the lumen from the source along a conductive fluid supply line 602 and a conduit 603, which is coupled to the inner catheter lumen at multilumen fitment 614. The source of conductive fluid (e.g., isotonic saline) may be an irrigant pump system (not shown) or a gravity-driven supply, such as an irrigant reservoir 600 positioned several feet above the level of the patient and tissue ablating region. A control valve 604 may be positioned at the interface of fluid supply line 602 and conduit 603 to allow manual control of the flow rate of electrically conductive fluid 50. Alternatively, a metering pump or flow regulator may be used to precisely control the flow rate of the conductive fluid.

[0193] System 400 can further include an aspiration or vacuum system (not shown) to aspirate liquids and gases from the target site. The aspiration system will usually comprise a source of vacuum coupled to fitment 614 by a aspiration connector 605.

[0194] The present invention is particularly useful in microendoscopic discectomy procedures, e.g., for decompressing a nerve root with a lumbar discectomy. As shown in FIGS. 18-23, a percutaneous penetration 270 is made in the patients' back 272 so that the superior lamina 274 can be accessed. Typically, a small needle (not shown) is used initially to localize the disc space level, and a guidewire (not shown) is inserted and advanced under lateral fluoroscopy to the inferior edge of the lamina 274. Sequential cannulated dilators 276 are inserted over the guide wire and each other to provide a hole from the incision 220 to the lamina 274. The first dilator may be used to “palpate” the lamina 274, assuring proper location of its tip between the spinous process and facet complex just above the inferior edge of the lamina 274. As shown in FIG. 21, a tubular retractor 278 is then passed over the largest dilator down to the lamina 274. The dilators 276 are removed, establishing an operating corridor within the tubular retractor 278.

[0195] As shown in FIG. 19, an endoscope 280 is then inserted into the tubular retractor 278 and a ring clamp 282 is used to secure the endoscope 280. Typically, the formation of the operating corridor within retractor 278 requires the removal of soft tissue, muscle or other types of tissue that were forced into this corridor as the dilators 276 and retractor 278 were advanced down to the lamina 274. This tissue is usually removed with mechanical instruments, such as pituitary rongeurs, curettes, graspers, cutters, drills, microdebriders, and the like. Unfortunately, these mechanical instruments greatly lengthen and increase the complexity of the procedure. In addition, these instruments sever blood vessels within this tissue, usually causing profuse bleeding that obstructs the surgeon's view of the target site.

[0196] According to another aspect of the present invention, an electrosurgical probe or catheter 284 as described above is introduced into the operating corridor within the retractor 278 to remove the soft tissue, muscle and other obstructions from this corridor so that the surgeon can easily access and visualization the lamina 274. Once the surgeon has introduced the probe 284, electrically conductive fluid 285 can be delivered through tube 233 and opening 237 to the tissue (see FIG. 4). The fluid flows past the return electrode 112 to the active electrodes 104 at the distal end of the shaft. The rate of fluid flow is controlled with valve 17 (FIG. 1) such that the zone between the tissue and electrode support 102 is constantly immersed in the fluid. The power supply 28 is then turned on and adjusted such that a high frequency voltage difference is applied between active electrodes 104 and return electrode 112. The electrically conductive fluid provides the conduction path (see current flux lines) between active electrodes 104 and the return electrode 112.

[0197] The high frequency voltage is sufficient to convert the electrically conductive fluid (not shown) between the target tissue and active electrode(s) 104 into an ionized vapor layer or plasma (not shown). As a result of the applied voltage difference between active electrode(s) 104 and the target tissue (i.e., the voltage gradient across the plasma layer), charged particles in the plasma (viz., electrons) are accelerated towards the tissue. At sufficiently high voltage differences, these charged particles gain sufficient energy to cause dissociation of the molecular bonds within tissue structures. This molecular dissociation is accompanied by the volumetric removal (i.e., ablative sublimation) of tissue and the production of low molecular weight gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane. The short range of the accelerated charged particles within the tissue confines the molecular dissociation process to the surface layer to minimize damage and necrosis to the underlying tissue.

[0198] During the process, the gases will be aspirated through opening 209 and suction tube 211 to a vacuum source. In addition, excess electrically conductive fluid, and other fluids (e.g., blood) will be aspirated from the operating corridor to facilitate the surgeon's view. During ablation of the tissue, the residual heat generated by the current flux lines (typically less than 150° C.), will usually be sufficient to coagulate any severed blood vessels at the site. If not, the surgeon may switch the power supply 28 into the coagulation mode by lowering the voltage to a level below the threshold for fluid vaporization, as discussed above. This simultaneous hemostasis results in less bleeding and facilitates the surgeon's ability to perform the procedure.

[0199] Another advantage of the present invention is the ability to precisely ablate soft tissue without causing necrosis or thermal damage to the underlying and surrounding tissues, nerves or bone. In addition, the voltage can be controlled so that the energy directed to the target site is insufficient to ablate the lamina 274 so that the surgeon can literally clean the tissue off the lamina 274, without ablating or otherwise effecting significant damage to the lamina.

[0200] Referring now to FIGS. 20 and 21, once the operating corridor is sufficiently cleared, a laminotomy and medial facetectomy is accomplished either with conventional techniques (e.g., Kerrison punch or a high speed drill) or with the electrosurgical probe 284 as discussed above. After the nerve root is identified, medical retraction can be achieved with a retractor 288, or the present invention can be used to precisely ablate the disc. If necessary, epidural veins are cauterized either automatically or with the coagulation mode of the present invention. If an annulotomy is necessary, it can be accomplished with a microknife or the ablation mechanism of the present invention while protecting the nerve root with the retractor 288. The herniated disc 290 is then removed with a pituitary rongeur in a standard fashion, or once again through ablation as described above.

[0201] In another embodiment, the present invention involves a channeling technique in which small holes or channels are formed within the disc 290, and thermal energy is applied to the tissue surface immediately surrounding these holes or channels to cause thermal damage to the tissue surface, thereby stiffening and debulking the surrounding tissue structure of the disc. Applicant has discovered that such stiffening of the tissue structure in the disc helps to reduce the pressure applied against the spinal nerves by the disc, thereby relieving back and neck pain.

[0202] As shown in FIG. 21, the electrosurgical instrument 350 is introduced to the target site at the disc 290 as described above, or in another percutaneous manner (see FIGS. 23-25 below). The electrode assembly 351 is positioned adjacent to or against the disc surface, and electrically conductive fluid is delivered to the target site, as described above. Alternatively, the conductive fluid is applied to the target site, or the distal end of probe 350 is dipped into conductive fluid or gel prior to introducing the probe 350 into the patient. The power supply 28 is then activated and adjusted such that a high frequency voltage difference is applied to the electrode assembly as described above.

[0203] Depending on the procedure, the surgeon may translate or otherwise move the electrodes relative to the target disc tissue to form holes, channels, stripes, divots, craters or the like within the disc. In addition, the surgeon may purposely create some thermal damage within these holes, or channels to form scar tissue that will stiffen and debulk the disc. In one embodiment, the physician axially translates the electrode assembly 351 into the disc tissue as the tissue is volumetrically removed to form one or more holes 702 therein (see also FIG. 22). The holes 702 will typically have a diameter of less than 2 mm, preferably less than 1 mm. In another embodiment (not shown), the physician translates the active electrode across the outer surface of the disc to form one or more channels or troughs. Applicant has found that the present invention can quickly and cleanly create such holes, divots or channels in tissue with the cold ablation technology described herein. A more complete description of methods for forming holes or channels in tissue can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,683,366, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

[0204]FIG. 22 is a more detailed viewed of the probe 350 of FIG. 15D forming a hole 702 in a disc 290. Hole 702 is preferably formed with the methods described in detail above. Namely, a high frequency voltage difference is applied between active and return electrodes 362, 360, respectively, in the presence of an electrically conductive fluid such that an electric current 361 passes from the active electrode 362, through the conductive fluid, to the return electrode 360. As shown in FIG. 22, this will result in shallow or no current penetration into the disc tissue 704. The fluid may be delivered to the target site, applied directly to the target site, or the distal end of the probe may be dipped into the fluid prior to the procedure. The voltage is sufficient to vaporize the fluid around active electrode 362 to form a plasma with sufficient energy to effect molecular dissociation of the tissue. The distal end of probe 350 is then axially advanced through the tissue as the tissue is removed by the plasma in front of the probe 350. The holes 702 will typically have a depth D in the range of about 0.5 cm to 2.5 cm, preferably about 1.2 cm to 1.8 cm, and a diameter d of about 0.5 mm to 5 mm, preferably about 1.0 mm to 3.0 mm. The exact diameter will, of course, depend on the diameter of the electrosurgical probe used for the procedure.

[0205] During the formation of each hole 702, the conductive fluid between active and return electrodes 362, 360 will generally minimize current flow into the surrounding tissue, thereby minimizing thermal damage to the tissue. Therefore, severed blood vessels on the surface 705 of the hole 702 may not be coagulated as the electrodes 362 advance through the tissue. In addition, in some procedures, it may be desired to thermally damage the surface 705 of the hole 702 to stiffen the tissue. For these reasons, it may be desired in some procedures to increase the thermal damage caused to the tissue surrounding hole 702. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 15D, it may be necessary to either: (1) withdraw the probe 350 slowly from hole 702 after coagulation electrode 380 has at least partially advanced past the outer surface of the disc tissue 704 into the hole 702 (as shown in FIG. 22); or (2) hold the probe 350 within the hole 702 for a period of time, e.g., on the order of 1 seconds to 30 seconds. Once the coagulation electrode is in contact with, or adjacent to, tissue, electric current 755 flows through the tissue surrounding hole 702 and creates thermal damage therein. The coagulation and return electrodes 380, 360 both have relatively large, smooth exposed surfaces to minimize high current densities at their surfaces, which minimizes damage to the surface 705 of hole. Meanwhile, the size and spacing of these electrodes 360, 380 allows for relatively deep current penetration into the tissue 704. In the representative embodiment, the thermal necrosis (not shown) will extend about 1.0 mm to 5.0 mm from surface 705 of hole 702. In this embodiment, the probe may include one or more temperature sensors (not shown) on probe coupled to one or more temperature displays on the power supply 28 such that the physician is aware of the temperature within the hole 702 during the procedure.

[0206] In other embodiments, the physician switches the electrosurgical system from the ablation mode to the sub-ablation or thermal heating mode after the hole 702 has been formed. This is typically accomplished by pressing a switch or foot pedal to reduce the voltage applied to a level below the threshold required for ablation for the particular electrode configuration and the conductive fluid being used in the procedure (as described above). In the sub-ablation mode, the physician will then remove the distal end of the probe 350 from the hole 702. As the probe is withdrawn, high frequency current flows from the active electrodes 362 through the surrounding tissue to the return electrode 360. This current flow heats the tissue and coagulates severed blood vessels at surface 705.

[0207] In another embodiment, the electrosurgical probe of the present invention can be used to ablate and/or contract soft tissue within the disc 290 to allow the annulus fibrosus 292 to repair itself to prevent reoccurrence of this procedure. For tissue contraction, a sufficient voltage difference is applied between the active electrodes 104 and the return electrode 112 to elevate the tissue temperature from normal body temperatures (e.g., 37° C.) to temperatures in the range of 45° C. to 90° C., preferably in the range from 60° C. to 70° C. This temperature elevation causes contraction of the collagen connective fibers within the disc tissue so that the nucleus pulposus withdraws into the annulus fibrosus 292.

[0208] In one method of tissue contraction according to the present invention, an electrically conductive fluid is delivered to the target site as described above, and heated to a sufficient temperature to induce contraction or shrinkage of the collagen fibers in the target tissue. The electrically conductive fluid is heated to a temperature sufficient to substantially irreversibly contract the collagen fibers, which generally requires a tissue temperature in the range of about 45° C. to 90° C., usually about 60° C. to 70° C. The fluid is heated by applying high frequency electrical energy to the active electrode(s) in contact with the electrically conductive fluid. The current emanating from the active electrode(s) 104 heats the fluid and generates a jet or plume of heated fluid, which is directed towards the target tissue. The heated fluid elevates the temperature of the collagen sufficiently to cause hydrothermal shrinkage of the collagen fibers. The return electrode 112 draws the electric current away from the tissue site to limit the depth of penetration of the current into the tissue, thereby inhibiting molecular dissociation and breakdown of the collagen tissue and minimizing or completely avoiding damage to surrounding and underlying tissue structures beyond the target tissue site. In an exemplary embodiment, the active electrode(s) 104 are held away from the tissue a sufficient distance such that the RF current does not pass into the tissue at all, but rather passes through the electrically conductive fluid back to the return electrode. In this embodiment, the primary mechanism for imparting energy to the tissue is the heated fluid, rather than the electric current.

[0209] In an alternative embodiment, the active electrode(s) 104 are brought into contact with, or close proximity to, the target tissue so that the electric current passes directly into the tissue to a selected depth. In this embodiment, the return electrode draws the electric current away from the tissue site to limit its depth of penetration into the tissue. Applicant has discovered that the depth of current penetration also can be varied with the electrosurgical system of the present invention by changing the frequency of the voltage applied to the active electrode and the return electrode. This is because the electrical impedance of tissue is known to decrease with increasing frequency due to the electrical properties of cell membranes which surround electrically conductive cellular fluid. At lower frequencies (e.g., less than 350 kHz), the higher tissue impedance, the presence of the return electrode and the active electrode configuration of the present invention (discussed in detail below) cause the current flux lines to penetrate less deeply resulting in a smaller depth of tissue heating. In an exemplary embodiment, an operating frequency of about 100 kHz to 200 kHz is applied to the active electrode(s) to obtain shallow depths of collagen shrinkage (e.g., usually less than 1.5 mm and preferably less than 0.5 mm).

[0210] In another aspect of the invention, the size (e.g., diameter or principal dimension) of the active electrodes employed for treating the tissue are selected according to the intended depth of tissue treatment. As described previously in copending patent application PCT International Application, U.S. National Phase Serial No. PCT/US94/05168, the depth of current penetration into tissue increases with increasing dimensions of an individual active electrode (assuming other factors remain constant, such as the frequency of the electric current, the return electrode configuration, etc.). The depth of current penetration (which refers to the depth at which the current density is sufficient to effect a change in the tissue, such as collagen shrinkage, irreversible necrosis, etc.) is on the order of the active electrode diameter for the bipolar configuration of the present invention and operating at a frequency of about 100 kHz to about 200 kHz. Accordingly, for applications requiring a smaller depth of current penetration, one or more active electrodes of smaller dimensions would be selected. Conversely, for applications requiring a greater depth of current penetration, one or more active electrodes of larger dimensions would be selected.

[0211] FIGS. 23-25 illustrate another system and method for treating swollen or herniated spinal discs according to the present invention. In this procedure, an electrosurgical probe 800 comprises a long, thin needle-like shaft 802 (e.g., on the order of about 1 mm in diameter or less) that can be percutaneously introduced posteriorly through the patient's back directly into the spine. The shaft 802 may or may not be flexible, depending on the method of access chosen by the physician. The probe shaft 802 will include one or more active electrode(s) 804 for applying electrical energy to tissues within the spine. The probe 800 may include one or more return electrode(s) 806, or the return electrode may be positioned on the patient's back, as a dispersive pad (not shown). As discussed below, however, a bipolar design is preferable.

[0212] As shown in FIG. 23, the distal portion of shaft 802 is introduced anteriorly through a small percutaneous penetration into the annulus fibrosus 292 of the target spinal disc. To facilitate this process, the distal end of shaft 802 may taper down to a sharper point (e.g., a needle), which can then be retracted to expose active electrode(s) 804. Alternatively, the electrodes may be formed around the surface of the tapered distal portion of shaft (not shown). In either embodiment, the distal end of shaft is delivered through the annulus 292 to the target nucleus pulposus 294, which may be herniated, extruded, non-extruded, or simply swollen. As shown in FIG. 24, high frequency voltage is applied between active electrode(s) 804 and return electrode(s) 806 to heat the surrounding collagen to suitable temperatures for contraction (i.e., typically about 55° C. to about 70° C.). As discussed above, this procedure may be accomplished with a monopolar configuration, as well. However, applicant has found that the bipolar configuration shown in FIGS. 23-25 provides enhanced control of the high frequency current, which reduces the risk of spinal nerve damage.

[0213] As shown in FIGS. 24 and 25, once the nucleus pulposus 294 has been sufficiently contracted to retract from impingement on the nerve 720, the probe 800 is removed from the target site. In the representative embodiment, the high frequency voltage is applied between active and return electrode(s) 804, 806 as the probe is withdrawn through the annulus 292. This voltage is sufficient to cause contraction of the collagen fibers within the annulus 292, which allows the annulus 292 to contract around the hole formed by probe 800, thereby improving the healing of this hole. Thus, the probe 800 seals its own passage as it is withdrawn from the disc.

[0214]FIG. 26A is a side view of an electrosurgical probe 900, according to one embodiment of the invention. Probe 900 includes a shaft 902 having a distal end portion 902 a and a proximal end portion 902 b. An active electrode 910 is disposed on distal end portion 902 a. Although only one active electrode is shown in FIG. 26A, embodiments including a plurality of active electrodes are also within the scope of the invention. Probe 900 further includes a handle 904 which houses a connection block 906 for coupling electrodes, e.g. active electrode 910, thereto. Connection block 906 includes a plurality of pins 908 adapted for coupling probe 900 to a power supply unit, e.g. power supply 28 (FIG. 1).

[0215]FIG. 26B is a side view of the distal end portion of the electrosurgical probe of FIG. 26A, showing details of shaft distal end portion 902 a. Distal end portion 902 a includes an insulating collar or spacer 916 proximal to active electrode 910, and a return electrode 918 proximal to collar 916. A first insulating sleeve (FIG. 28B) may be located beneath return electrode 918. A second insulating jacket or sleeve 920 may extend proximally from return electrode 918. Second insulating sleeve 920 serves as an electrical insulator to inhibit current flow into the adjacent tissue. In a currently preferred embodiment, probe 900 further includes a shield 922 extending proximally from second insulating sleeve 920. Shield 922 may be formed from a conductive metal such as stainless steel, and the like. Shield 922 functions to decrease the amount of leakage current passing from probe 900 to a patient or a user (e.g., surgeon). In particular, shield 922 decreases the amount of capacitive coupling between return electrode 918 and an introducer needle 928 (FIG. 31A). Typically shield 922 is coupled to an outer floating conductive layer or cable shield (not shown) of a cable, e.g. cables 22, 34 (FIG. 1), connecting probe 900 to power supply 28. In this way, the capacitor balance of shaft 902 is disturbed. In one embodiment, shield 922 may be coated with a durable, hard compound such as titanium nitride. Such a coating has the advantage of providing reduced friction between shield 922 and introducer inner wall 932 as shaft 902 is axially translated within introducer needle 928 (e.g., FIGS. 31A, 31B).

[0216]FIG. 27A is a side view of an electrosurgical probe 900 showing a first curve 924 and a second curve 926 located at distal end portion 902 a, wherein second curve 926 is proximal to first curve 924. First curve 924 and second curve 926 may be separated by a linear (i.e. straight, or non-curved), or substantially linear, intercurve portion 925 of shaft 902.

[0217]FIG. 27B is a side view of shaft distal end portion 902 a within a representative introducer device or needle 928 having an inner diameter D. Shaft distal end portion 902 a includes first curve 924 and second curve 926 separated by inter-curve portion 925. In one embodiment, shaft distal end portion 902 a includes a linear or substantially linear proximal portion 901 extending from proximal end portion 902 b to second curve 926, a linear or substantially linear inter-curve portion 925 between first and second curves 924, 926, and a linear or substantially linear distal portion 909 between first curve 924 and the distal tip of shaft 902 (the distal tip is represented in FIG. 27B as an electrode head 911). When shaft distal end portion 902 a is located within introducer needle 928, first curve 924 subtends a first angle ∀ to the inner surface of needle 928, and second curve 926 subtends a second angle ∃ to inner surface 932 of needle 928. (In the situation shown in FIG. 27B, needle inner surface 932 is essentially parallel to the longitudinal axis of shaft proximal end portion 902 b (FIG. 27A).)

[0218] In one embodiment, shaft distal end portion 902 a is designed such that the shaft distal tip occupies a substantially central transverse location within the lumen of introducer needle 928 when shaft distal end portion 902 a is translated axially with respect to introducer needle 928. Thus, as shaft distal end portion 902 a is advanced through the distal opening of needle 928 (FIGS. 30B, 31B), and then retracted back into the distal opening, the shaft distal tip will always occupy a transverse location towards the center of introducer needle 928 (even though the tip may be curved or biased away from the longitudinal axis of shaft 902 and needle 928 upon its advancement past the distal opening of introducer needle 928). In one embodiment, shaft distal end portion 902 a is flexible and has a configuration which requires shaft distal end portion 902 a be distorted in the region of at least second curve 926 by application of a lateral force imposed by inner wall 932 of introducer needle 928 as shaft distal end portion 902 a is introduced or retracted into needle 928. In one embodiment, first curve 924 and second curve 926 are in the same plane relative to the longitudinal axis of shaft 902, and first and second curves 924, 926 are in opposite directions.

[0219] The “S-curve” configuration of shaft 902 shown in FIGS. 27A-C allows the distal end or tip of a device to be advanced or retracted through needle distal end 928 a and within the lumen of needle 928 without the distal end or tip contacting introducer needle 928. Accordingly, this design allows a sensitive or delicate component to be located at the distal tip of a device, wherein the distal end or tip is advanced or retracted through a lumen of an introducer instrument comprising a relatively hard material (e.g., an introducer needle comprising stainless steel). This design also allows a component located at a distal end or tip of a device to be constructed from a relatively soft material, and for the component located at the distal end or tip to be passed through an introducer instrument comprising a hard material without risking damage to the component comprising a relatively soft material.

[0220] The “S-curve” design of shaft distal end portion 902 a allows the distal tip (e.g., electrode head 911) to be advanced and retracted through the distal opening of needle 928 while avoiding contact between the distal tip and the edges of the distal opening of needle 928. (If, for example, shaft distal end portion 902 a included only a single curve the distal tip would ordinarily come into contact with needle distal end 928 a as shaft 902 is retracted into the lumen of needle 928.) In preferred embodiments, the length L2 of distal portion 909 and the angle ∀ between distal portion 909 and needle inner surface 932 928, when shaft distal end portion 902 a is compressed within needle 928, are selected such that the distal tip is substantially in the center of the lumen of needle 928, as shown in FIG. 27B. Thus, as the length L2 increases, the angle ∀ will decrease, and vice versa. The exact values of length L2 and angle ∀ will depend on the inner diameter, D of needle 928, the inner diameter, d of shaft distal end portion 902 a, and the size of the shaft distal tip.

[0221] The presence of first and second curves, 924, 926 provides a predefined bias in shaft 902. In addition, in one embodiment shaft distal end portion 902 a is designed such that at least one of first and second curves 924, 926 are compressed to some extent as shaft distal end portion 902 a is retracted into the lumen of needle 928. Accordingly, the angle of at least one of curves 924, 926 may be changed when distal end portion 902 a is advanced out through the distal opening of introducer needle 928, as compared with the corresponding angle when shaft distal end portion is completely retracted within introducer needle 928. For example, FIG. 27C shows shaft 902 of FIG. 27B free from introducer needle 928, wherein first and second curves 924, 926 are allowed to adopt their natural or uncompressed angles ∀′ and ∃′, respectively, wherein ∃′ is typically equal to or greater than ∃. Angle ∀′ may be greater than, equal to, or less than angle ∀. Angle ∃′ is subtended by inter-curve portion 925 and proximal portion 901. When shaft distal end portion 902 a is unrestrained by introducer needle 928, proximal portion 901 approximates the longitudinal axis of shaft 902. Angle ∀′ is subtended between linear distal portion 909 and a line drawn parallel to proximal portion 901. Electrode head 911 is omitted from FIG. 27C for the sake of clarity.

[0222] The principle described above with reference to shaft 902 and introducer needle 928 may equally apply to a range of other medical devices. That is to say, the “S-curve” configuration of the invention may be included as a feature of any medical system or apparatus in which a medical instrument may be axially translated or passed within an introducer device. In particular, the principle of the “S-curve” configuration of the invention may be applied to any apparatus wherein it is desired that the distal end of the medical instrument does not contact or impinge upon the introducer device as the medical instrument is advanced from or retracted into the introducer device. The introducer device may be any apparatus through which a medical instrument is passed. Such medical systems may include, for example, a catheter, a cannula, an endoscope, and the like.

[0223] When shaft 902 is advanced distally through the needle lumen to a point where second curve 926 is located distal to needle distal end 928 a, the shaft distal tip is deflected from the longitudinal axis of needle 928. The amount of this deflection is determined by the relative size of angles ∃′ and ∀′, and the relative lengths of L1 and L2. The amount of this deflection will in turn determine the size of a channel or lesion (depending on the application) formed in a tissue treated by electrode head 911 when shaft 902 is rotated circumferentially with respect to the longitudinal axis of probe 900.

[0224] As a result of the pre-defined bias in shaft 902, shaft distal end portion 902 a will contact a larger volume of tissue than a linear shaft having the same dimensions. In addition, in one embodiment the pre-defined bias of shaft 902 allows the physician to guide or steer the distal tip of shaft 902 by a combination of axial movement of needle distal end 928 a and the inherent curvature at shaft distal end portion 902 a of probe 900.

[0225] Shaft 902 preferably has a length in the range of from about 4 cm to 30 cm. In one aspect of the invention, probe 900 is manufactured in a range of sizes having different lengths and/or diameters of shaft 902. A shaft of appropriate size can then be selected by the surgeon according to the body structure or tissue to be treated and the age or size of the patient. In this way, patients varying in size from small children to large adults can be accommodated. Similarly, for a patient of a given size, a shaft of appropriate size can be selected by the surgeon depending on the organ or tissue to be treated, for example, whether an inter-vertebral disc to be treated is in the lumbar spine or the cervical spine. For example, a shaft suitable for treatment of a disc of the cervical spine may be substantially smaller than a shaft for treatment of a lumbar disc. For treatment of a lumbar disc in an adult, shaft 902 is preferably in the range of from about 15 cm to 25 cm. For treatment of a cervical disc, shaft 902 is preferably in the range of from about 4 cm to about 15 cm.

[0226] The diameter of shaft 902 is preferably in the range of from about 0.5 to about 2.5 mm, and more preferably from about 1 mm to 1.5 mm. First curve 924 is separated from second curve 926 by a length L1, while electrode head 911 extends distally from first curve 924 by a length L2 (FIG. 27B). In one embodiment, L2 is greater than L1. Typically, length L1 may be in the range of from about 0.5 to about 5 mm, while L2 may be in the range of from about 1 to about 10 mm. FIG. 28A is a side view of shaft distal end portion 902 a of electrosurgical probe 900 showing a head 911 of active electrode 910 (the latter not shown in FIG. 28A), according to one embodiment of the invention. In this embodiment, electrode head 911 includes an apical spike 911 a and an equatorial cusp 911 b. Electrode head 911 exhibits a number of advantages as compared with, for example, an electrosurgical probe having a blunt, globular, or substantially spherical active electrode. In particular, electrode head 911 provides a high current density at apical spike 911 a and cusp 911 b. In turn, high current density in the vicinity of an active electrode is advantageous in the generation of a plasma; and, as is described fully hereinabove, generation of a plasma in the vicinity of an active electrode is fundamental to ablation of tissue with minimal collateral thermal damage according to certain embodiments of the instant invention. Electrode head 911 provides an additional advantage, in that the sharp edges of cusp 911 b, and more particularly of apical spike 911 a, facilitate movement and guiding of head 911 into tissue during surgical procedures, as described fully hereinbelow. In contrast, an electrosurgical probe having a blunt or rounded apical electrode is more likely to follow a path of least resistance, such as a channel which was previously ablated within nucleus pulposus tissue. Although certain embodiments of the invention depict head 911 as having a single apical spike, other shapes for the apical portion of active electrode 910 are also within the scope of the invention.

[0227]FIG. 28B is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of distal end portion 902 a of shaft 902. Apical electrode head 911 is in communication with a filament 912. Filament 912 typically comprises an electrically conductive wire encased within a first insulating sleeve 914. First insulating sleeve 914 comprises an insulator, such as various synthetic polymeric materials. An exemplary material from which first insulating sleeve 914 may be constructed is a polyimide. First insulating sleeve 914 may extend the entire length of shaft 902 proximal to head 911. An insulating collar or spacer 916 is disposed on the distal end of first insulating sleeve 914, adjacent to electrode head 911. Collar 916 preferably comprises a material such as a glass, a ceramic, or a silicone rubber. The exposed portion of first insulating sleeve 914 (i.e., the portion proximal to collar 916) is encased within a cylindrical return electrode 918. Return electrode 918 may extend proximally the entire length of shaft 902. Return electrode 918 may comprise an electrically conductive material such as stainless steel, tungsten, platinum or its alloys, titanium or its alloys, molybdenum or its alloys, nickel or its alloys, and the like. A proximal portion of return electrode 918 is encased within a second insulating sleeve 920, so as to provide an exposed band of return electrode 918 located distal to second sleeve 920 and proximal to collar 916. Second sleeve 920 provides an insulated portion of shaft 920 which facilitates handling of probe 900 by the surgeon during a surgical procedure. A proximal portion of second sleeve 920 is encased within an electrically conductive shield 922. Second sleeve 920 and shield 922 may also extend proximally for the entire length of shaft 902.

[0228]FIG. 29 is a side view of shaft distal end portion 902 a of electrosurgical probe 900, indicating the position of first and second curves 924, 926, respectively. Probe 900 includes head 911, collar 916, return electrode 918, second insulating sleeve 920, and shield 922, generally as described with reference to FIGS. 28A, 28B. In the embodiment of FIG. 29, first curve 924 is located within return electrode 918, while second curve 926 is located within shield 922. However, according to various embodiments of the invention, shaft 902 may be provided in which one or more curves are present at alternative or additional locations or components of shaft 902, other than the location of first and second curves 924, 926, respectively, shown in FIG. 29.

[0229]FIG. 30A shows distal end portion 902 a of shaft 902 extended distally from an introducer needle 928, according to one embodiment of the invention. Introducer needle 928 may be used to conveniently introduce shaft 902 into tissue, such as the nucleus pulposus of an inter-vertebral disc. In this embodiment, due to the curvature of shaft distal end 902 a, when shaft 902 is extended distally beyond introducer needle 928, head 911 is displaced laterally from the longitudinal axis of introducer needle 928. However, as shown in FIG. 30B, as shaft 902 is retracted into introducer needle 928, head 911 assumes a substantially central transverse location within lumen 930 (see also FIG. 31B) of introducer 928. Such realignment of head 911 with the longitudinal axis of introducer 928 is achieved by specific design of the curvature of shaft distal end 902 a, as accomplished by the instant inventors. In this manner, contact of various components of shaft distal end 902 a (e.g., electrode head 911, collar 916, return electrode 918) is prevented, thereby not only facilitating extension and retraction of shaft 902 within introducer 928, but also avoiding a potential source of damage to sensitive components of shaft 902.

[0230]FIG. 31A shows a side view of shaft 902 in relation to an inner wall 932 of introducer needle 928 upon extension or retraction of electrode head 911 from, or within, introducer needle 928. Shaft 902 is located within introducer 928 with head 911 adjacent to introducer distal end 928 a (FIG. 31B). Under these circumstances, curvature of shaft 902 may cause shaft distal end 902 a to be forced into contact with introducer inner wall 932, e.g., at a location of second curve 926. Nevertheless, due to the overall curvature of shaft 902, and in particular the nature and position of first curve 924 (FIGS. 27A-B), head 911 does not contact introducer distal end 928 a.

[0231]FIG. 31B shows an end view of electrode head 911 in relation to introducer needle 928 at a point during extension or retraction of shaft 902, wherein head 911 is adjacent to introducer distal end 928 a (FIGS. 30B, 31B). In this situation, head 911 is substantially centrally positioned within lumen 930 of introducer 928. Therefore, contact between head 911 and introducer 928 is avoided, allowing shaft distal end 902 a to be extended and retracted repeatedly without sustaining any damage to shaft 902.

[0232]FIG. 32A shows shaft proximal end portion 902 b of electrosurgical probe 900, wherein shaft 902 includes a plurality of depth markings 903 (shown as 903 a-f in FIG. 32A). In other embodiments, other numbers and arrangements of depth markings 903 may be included on shaft 902. For example, in certain embodiments, depth markings may be present along the entire length of shield 922, or a single depth marking 903 may be present at shaft proximal end portion 902 b. Depth markings serve to indicate to the surgeon the depth of penetration of shaft 902 into a patient's tissue, organ, or body, during a surgical procedure. Depth markings 903 may be formed directly in or on shield 922, and may comprise the same material as shield 922. Alternatively, depth markings 903 may be formed from a material other than that of shield 922. For example, depth markings may be formed from materials which have a different color and/or a different level of radiopacity, as compared with material of shield 922. For example, depth markings may comprise a metal, such as tungsten, gold, or platinum oxide (black), having a level of radiopacity different from that of shield 922. Such depth markings may be visualized by the surgeon during a procedure performed under fluoroscopy. In one embodiment, the length of the introducer needle and the shaft 902 are selected to limit the range of the shaft beyond the distal tip of the introducer needle.

[0233]FIG. 32B shows a probe 900, wherein shaft 902 includes a mechanical stop 905. Preferably, mechanical stop 905 is located at shaft proximal end portion 902 b. Mechanical stop 905 limits the distance to which shaft distal end 902 a can be advanced through introducer 928 by making mechanical contact with a proximal end 928 b of introducer 928. Mechanical stop 905 may be a rigid material or structure affixed to, or integral with, shaft 902. Mechanical stop 905 also serves to monitor the depth or distance of advancement of shaft distal end 902 a through introducer 928, and the degree of penetration of distal end 902 a into a patient's tissue, organ, or body. In one embodiment, mechanical stop 905 is movable on shaft 902, and stop 905 includes a stop adjustment unit 907 for adjusting the position of stop 905 and for locking stop 905 at a selected location on shaft 902.

[0234]FIG. 33 illustrates stages in manufacture of an active electrode 910 of a shaft 902, according to one embodiment of the present invention. Stage 33-I shows an elongated piece of electrically conductive material 912′, e.g., a metal wire, as is well known in the art. Material 912′ includes a first end 912′a and a second end 912′b. Stage 33-II shows the formation of a globular structure 911′ from first end 912′a, wherein globular structure 911′ is attached to filament 912. Globular structure 911′ may be conveniently formed by applying heat to first end 912′a. Techniques for applying heat to the end of a metal wire are well known in the art. Stage 33-III shows the formation of an electrode head 911 from globular structure 911′, wherein active electrode 910 comprises head 911, and filament 912 attached to head 911. In this particular embodiment, head 911 includes an apical spike 911 a and a substantially equatorial cusp 911 b.

[0235]FIG. 34 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of making a shaft according to one embodiment of the present invention, wherein step 1000 involves providing an active electrode having a filament, the active electrode including an electrode head attached to the filament. An exemplary active electrode to be provided in step 1000 is an electrode of the type described with reference to FIG. 33. At this stage (step 1000), the filament may be trimmed to an appropriate length for subsequent coupling to a connection block (FIG. 26A).

[0236] Step 1002 involves covering or encasing the filament with a first insulating sleeve of an electrically insulating material such as a synthetic polymer or plastic, e.g., a polyimide. Preferably, the first insulating sleeve extends the entire length of the shaft. Step 1004 involves positioning a collar of an electrically insulating material on the distal end of the first insulating sleeve, wherein the collar is located adjacent to the electrode head. The collar is preferably a material such as a glass, a ceramic, or silicone. Step 1006 involves placing a cylindrical return electrode over the first insulating sleeve. Preferably, the return electrode is positioned such that its distal end is contiguous with the proximal end of the collar, and the return electrode preferably extends proximally for the entire length of the shaft. The return electrode may be constructed from stainless steel or other non-corrosive, electrically conductive metal.

[0237] According to one embodiment, a metal cylindrical return electrode is pre-bent to include a curve within its distal region (i.e. the return electrode component is bent prior to assembly onto the shaft). As a result, the shaft assumes a first curve upon placing the return electrode over the first insulating sleeve, i.e. the first curve in the shaft results from the bend in the return electrode. Step 1008 involves covering a portion of the return electrode with a second insulating layer or sleeve such that a band of the return electrode is exposed distal to the distal end of the second insulating sleeve. In one embodiment, the second insulating sleeve comprises a heat-shrink plastic material which is heated prior to positioning the second insulating sleeve over the return electrode. According to one embodiment, the second insulating sleeve is initially placed over the entire length of the shaft, and thereafter the distal end of the second insulating sleeve is cut back to expose an appropriate length of the return electrode. Step 1010 involves encasing a proximal portion of the second insulating sleeve within a shield of electrically conductive material, such as a cylinder of stainless steel or other metal, as previously described herein.

[0238]FIG. 35 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of making an electrosurgical probe of the present invention, wherein step 1100 involves providing a shaft having at least one active electrode and at least one return electrode. An exemplary shaft to be provided in step 1100 is that prepared according to the method described hereinabove with reference to FIG. 34, i.e., the shaft includes a first curve. Step 1102 involves bending the shaft to form a second curve. Preferably, the second curve is located at the distal end portion of the shaft, but proximal to the first curve. In one embodiment, the second curve is greater than the first curve. (Features of both the first curve and second curve have been described hereinabove, e.g., with reference to FIG. 27B.) Step 1104 involves providing a handle for the probe. The handle includes a connection block for electrically coupling the electrodes thereto. Step 1106 involves coupling the active and return electrodes of the shaft to the connection block. The connection block allows for convenient coupling of the electrosurgical probe to a power supply (e.g., power supply 28, FIG. 1). Thereafter, step 1108 involves affixing the shaft to the handle.

[0239]FIG. 36A schematically represents a normal inter-vertebral disc 290 in relation to the spinal cord 720, the inter-vertebral disc having an outer annulus fibrosus 292 enclosing an inner nucleus pulposus 294. The nucleus pulposus is a relatively soft tissue comprising proteins and having a relatively high water content, as compared with the harder, more fibrous annulus fibrosus. FIGS. 36B-D each schematically represent an inter-vertebral disc having a disorder which can lead to discogenic pain, for example due to compression of a nerve root by a distorted annulus fibrosus. Thus, FIG. 36B schematically represents an inter-vertebral disc exhibiting a protrusion of the nucleus pulposus and a concomitant distortion of the annulus fibrosus. The condition depicted in FIG. 36B clearly represents a contained herniation, which can result in severe and often debilitating pain. FIG. 36C schematically represents an inter-vertebral disc exhibiting a plurality of fissures within the annulus fibrosus, again with concomitant distortion of the annulus fibrosus. Such annular fissures may be caused by excessive pressure exerted by the nucleus pulposus on the annulus fibrosus. Excessive pressure within the nucleus pulposus tends to intensify disc disorders associated with the presence of such fissures. FIG. 36D schematically represents an inter-vertebral disc exhibiting fragmentation of the nucleus pulposus and a concomitant distortion of the annulus fibrosus. In this situation, over time, errant fragment 294′ of the nucleus pulposus tends to dehydrate and to diminish in size, often leading to a decrease in discogenic pain over an extended period of time (e.g., several months). For the sake of clarity, each FIG. 36B, 36C, 36D shows a single disorder. However, in practice more than one of the depicted disorders may occur in the same disc.

[0240] Many patients suffer from discogenic pain resulting, for example, from conditions of the type depicted in FIGS. 36B-D. However, only a small percentage of such patients undergo laminotomy or discectomy. Presently, there is a need for interventional treatment for the large group of patients who ultimately do not undergo major spinal surgery, but who sustain significant disability due to various disorders or abnormalities of an inter-vertebral disc. A common disorder of inter-vertebral discs is a contained herniation in which the nucleus pulposus does not breach the annulus fibrosus, but a protrusion of the disc causes compression of the exiting nerve root, leading to radicular pain. Typical symptoms are leg pain compatible with sciatica. Such radicular pain may be considered as a particular form of discogenic pain. Most commonly, contained herniations leading to radicular pain are associated with the lumbar spine, and in particular with inter-vertebral discs at either L4-5 or L5-S1. Various disc abnormalities are also encountered in the cervical spine. Methods and apparatus of the invention are applicable to all segments of the spine, including the cervical spine and the lumbar spine.

[0241]FIG. 37 schematically represents shaft 902 of probe 900 inserted within a nucleus pulposus of a disc having at least one fissure in the annulus fibrosus. Shaft 902 may be conveniently inserted within the nucleus pulposus via introducer needle 928 in a minimally invasive percutaneous procedure. In a preferred embodiment, a disc in the lumbar spine may be accessed via a posterior lateral approach, although other approaches are possible and are within the scope of the invention. The preferred length and diameter of shaft 902 and introducer needle 928 to be used in a procedure will depend on a number of factors, including the region of the spine (e.g., lumbar, cervical) or other body region to be treated, and the size of the patient. Preferred ranges for shaft 902 are given elsewhere herein. In one embodiment for treatment of a lumbar disc, introducer needle 928 preferably has a diameter in the range of from about 50% to 150% the inside diameter of a 17 Gauge needle. In an embodiment for treatment of a cervical disc, introducer needle 928 preferably has a diameter in the range of from about 50% to 150% the inner diameter of a 20 Gauge needle.

[0242] Shaft 902 includes an active electrode 910, as described hereinabove. Shaft 902 features curvature at distal end 902 a/902′a, for example, as described with reference to FIGS. 27A-B. By rotating shaft 902 through approximately 180°, shaft distal end 902 a can be moved to a position indicated by the dashed lines and labeled as 902′a. Thereafter, rotation of shaft 902 through an additional 180° defines a substantially cylindrical three-dimensional space with a proximal conical area, represented as a hatched area (shown between 902 a and 902′a). The bi-directional arrow distal to active electrode 910 indicates translation of shaft 902 substantially along the longitudinal axis of shaft 902. By a combination of axial and rotational movement of shaft 902, a much larger volume of the nucleus pulposus can be contacted by electrode 910, as compared with a corresponding probe having a linear (non-curved) shaft. Furthermore, the curved nature of shaft 902 allows the surgeon to change the direction of advancement of shaft 902 by appropriate rotation thereof, and to guide shaft distal end 902 a to a particular target site within the nucleus pulposus.

[0243] It is to be understood that according to certain embodiments of the invention, the curvature of shaft 902 is the same, or substantially the same, both prior to it being used in a surgical procedure and while it is performing ablation during a procedure, e.g., within an inter-vertebral disc. (One apparent exception to this statement, relates to the stage in a procedure wherein shaft 902 may be transiently “molded” into a somewhat more linear configuration by the constraints of introducer inner wall 932 during housing, or passing, of shaft 902 within introducer 928.) In contrast, certain prior art devices, and embodiments of the invention to be described hereinbelow (e.g., with reference to FIG. 43A, 43B), may be linear or lacking a naturally defined configuration prior to use, and then may be steered into a selected configuration during a surgical procedure.

[0244] While shaft distal end 902 a is at or adjacent to a target site within the nucleus pulposus, probe 900 may be used to ablate tissue by application of a first high frequency voltage between active electrode 910 and return electrode 918 (e.g., FIG. 26B), wherein the volume of the nucleus pulposus is decreased, the pressure exerted by the nucleus pulposus on the annulus fibrosus is decreased, and at least one nerve or nerve root is decompressed. Accordingly, discogenic pain experienced by the patient may be alleviated. Preferably, application of the first high frequency voltage results in formation of a plasma in the vicinity of active electrode 910, and the plasma causes ablation by breaking down high molecular weight disc tissue components (e.g., proteins) into low molecular weight gaseous materials. Such low molecular weight gaseous materials may be at least partially vented or exhausted from the disc, e.g., by piston action, upon removal of shaft 902 and introducer 928 from the disc and the clearance between the introducer 928 and the shaft 902. In addition, by-products of tissue ablation may be removed by an aspiration device (not shown in FIG. 37), as is well known in the art. In this manner, the volume and/or mass of the nucleus pulposus may be decreased.

[0245] In order to initiate and/or maintain a plasma in the vicinity of active electrode 910, a quantity of an electrically conductive fluid may be applied to shaft 902 and/or the tissue to ablated. The electrically conductive fluid may be applied to shaft 902 and/or to the tissue to be ablated, either before or during application of the first high frequency voltage. Examples of electrically conductive fluids are saline (e.g., isotonic saline), and an electrically conductive gel. An electrically conductive fluid may be applied to the tissue to be ablated before or during ablation. A fluid delivery unit or device may be a component of the electrosurgical probe itself, or may comprise a separate device, e.g., ancillary device 940 (FIG. 41). Alternatively, many body fluids and/or tissues (e.g., the nucleus pulposus, blood) at the site to be ablated are electrically conductive and can participate in initiation or maintenance of a plasma in the vicinity of the active electrode.

[0246] In one embodiment, after ablation of nucleus pulposus tissue by the application of the first high frequency voltage and formation of a cavity or channel within the nucleus pulposus, a second high frequency voltage may be applied between active electrode 910 and return electrode 918, wherein application of the second high frequency voltage causes coagulation of nucleus pulposus tissue adjacent to the cavity or channel. Such coagulation of nucleus pulposus tissue may lead to increased stiffness, strength, and/or rigidity within certain regions of the nucleus pulposus, concomitant with an alleviation of discogenic pain. Furthermore, coagulation of tissues may lead to necrotic tissue which is subsequently broken down as part of a natural bodily process and expelled from the body, thereby resulting in de-bulking of the disc. Although FIG. 37 depicts a disc having fissures within the annulus fibrosus, it is to be understood that apparatus and methods of the invention discussed with reference to FIG. 37 are also applicable to treating other types of disc disorders, including those described with reference to FIGS. 36B, 36D.

[0247]FIG. 38 shows shaft 902 of electrosurgical probe 900 within an intervertebral disc, wherein shaft distal end 902 a is targeted to a specific site within the disc. In the situation depicted in FIG. 38, the target site is occupied by an errant fragment 294′ of nucleus pulposus tissue. Shaft distal end 902 may be guided or directed, at least in part, by appropriate placement of introducer 928, such that active electrode 910 is in the vicinity of fragment 294′. Preferably, active electrode 910 is adjacent to, or in contact with, fragment 294′. Although FIG. 38 depicts a disc in which a fragment of nucleus pulposus is targeted by shaft 902, the invention described with reference to FIG. 38 may also be used for targeting other aberrant structures within an inter-vertebral disc, including annular fissures and contained herniations. In one embodiment, shaft 902 includes at least one curve (not shown in FIG. 38), and other features described herein with reference to FIGS. 26A-35, wherein shaft distal end 902 a may be precisely guided by an appropriate combination of axial and rotational movement of shaft 902. The procedure illustrated in FIG. 38 may be performed generally according to the description presented with reference to FIG. 37. That is, shaft 902 is introduced into the disc via introducer 928 in a percutaneous procedure. After shaft distal end 902 a has been guided to a target site, tissue at or adjacent to that site is ablated by application of a first high frequency voltage. Thereafter, depending on the particular condition of the disc being treated, a second high frequency voltage may optionally be applied in order to locally coagulate, or otherwise modify tissue within the disc.

[0248]FIG. 39 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of ablating disc tissue using an electrosurgical probe according to the present invention, wherein the probe includes a shaft, and an active electrode and a return electrode disposed on the shaft distal end. Step 1200 involves advancing an introducer needle towards an inter-vertebral disc to be treated. In one embodiment, the introducer needle has a length in the range of from about 3 cm to about 25 cm, and the lumen of the introducer needle has a diameter in the range of from about 0.5 mm. to about 2.5 mm. The introducer needle maybe inserted in the inter-vertebral disc percutaneously, e.g. via a posterior lateral approach. In one embodiment, the introducer needle may have dimensions similar to those of an epidural needle, the latter well known in the art.

[0249] Optional step 1202 involves introducing an electrically conductive fluid, such as saline, into the disc or at the shaft distal end, whereby the electrically conductive fluid forms a current flow path between the active electrode and the return electrode. In one embodiment, in lieu of step 1202, the ablation procedure may rely on the electrical conductivity of the nucleus pulposus itself. Step 1204 involves inserting the shaft of the electrosurgical probe into the disc, e.g., via the introducer needle, wherein the distal end portion of the shaft bears an active electrode and a return electrode. In one embodiment, the shaft includes an outer shield, first and second curves at the distal end portion of the shaft, and an electrode head having an apical spike, generally as described with reference to FIGS. 26A-32. In another embodiment, the apparatus includes a positioning unit for monitoring the location of the probe relative to an introducer device (e.g., FIGS. 49A-C).

[0250] Step 1206 involves ablating at least a portion of disc tissue by application of a first high frequency voltage between the active electrode and the return electrode. In particular, ablation of nucleus pulposus tissue according to methods of the invention serves to decrease the volume of the nucleus pulposus, thereby relieving pressure exerted on the annulus fibrosus, with concomitant decompression of a previously compressed nerve root, and alleviation of discogenic pain.

[0251] In one embodiment, the introducer needle is advanced towards the inter-vertebral disc until it penetrates the annulus fibrosus and enters the nucleus pulposus. The shaft distal end in introduced into the nucleus pulposus, and a portion of the nucleus pulposus is ablated. These and other stages of the procedure may be performed under fluoroscopy to allow visualization of the relative location of the introducer needle and shaft relative to the nucleus pulposus of the disc. Additionally or alternatively, the surgeon may introduce the introducer needle into the nucleus pulposus from a first side of the disc, then advance the shaft distal end through the nucleus pulposus until resistance to axial translation of the electrosurgical probe is encountered by the surgeon. Such resistance may be interpreted by the surgeon as the shaft distal end having contacted the annulus fibrosus at the opposite side of the disc. Then, by use of depth markings on the shaft (FIG. 32A), the surgeon can retract the shaft a defined distance in order to position the shaft distal end at a desired location relative to the nucleus pulposus. Once the shaft distal end is suitably positioned, high frequency voltage may be applied to the probe via the power supply unit.

[0252] After step 1206, optional step 1208 involves coagulating or otherwise modifying at least a portion of the disc tissue. In one embodiment, step 1206 results in the formation of a channel or cavity within the nucleus pulposus. Thereafter, tissue at the surface of the channel may be coagulated, stiffened, or contracted, during step 1208. Coagulation, stiffening, or contraction of disc tissue may be performed by application of a second high frequency voltage, wherein the second high frequency voltage is applied in the sub-ablation mode, generally as described hereinabove. After step 1206 or step 1208, the shaft may be moved (step 1210) such that the shaft distal end contacts fresh tissue of the nucleus pulposus. The shaft may be axially translated (i.e. moved in the direction of its longitudinal axis), may be rotated about its longitudinal axis, or may be moved by a combination of axial and rotational movement. In the latter case, a substantially spiral path is defined by the shaft distal end. After step 1210, steps 1206 and 1208 maybe repeated with respect to the fresh tissue of the nucleus pulposus contacted by the shaft distal end. Alternatively, after step 1206 or step 1208, the shaft may be withdrawn from the disc (step 1212). Step 1214 involves withdrawing the introducer needle from the disc. In one embodiment, the shaft and the needle may be withdrawn from the disc concurrently. Withdrawal of the shaft from the disc may facilitate exhaustion of ablation by-products from the disc. Such ablation by-products include low molecular weight gaseous compounds derived from molecular dissociation of disc tissue components, as described hereinabove.

[0253] The above method may be used to treat any disc disorder in which ablation, coagulation, stiffening, or shrinking of disc tissue is indicated, including contained herniations. In one embodiment, an introducer needle may be introduced generally as described for step 1200, and a fluoroscopic fluid may be introduced through the lumen of the introducer needle for the purpose of visualizing and diagnosing a disc abnormality or disorder. Thereafter, depending on the diagnosis, a treatment procedure maybe performed, e.g., according to steps 1202 through 1214, using the same introducer needle as access. In one embodiment, a distal portion, or the entire length, of the introducer needle may have an insulating coating on its external surface. Such an insulating coating on the introducer needle may prevent interference between the electrically conductive introducer needle and electrode(s) on the probe.

[0254] The size of a cavity or channel formed in a tissue by a single straight pass of the shaft through the tissue to be ablated is a function of the diameter of the shaft (e.g., the diameter of the shaft distal end and active electrode) and the amount of axial translation of the shaft. (By a “single straight pass” of the shaft is meant one axial translation of the shaft in a distal direction through the tissue, in the absence of rotation of the shaft about the longitudinal axis of the shaft, with the power from the power supply turned on.) In the case of a curved shaft, according to various embodiments of the instant invention, a larger channel can be formed by rotating the shaft as it is advanced through the tissue. The size of a channel formed in a tissue by a single rotational pass of the shaft through the tissue to be ablated is a function of the deflection (i.e., curvature or bias) of the shaft, and the amount of rotation of the shaft about its longitudinal axis, as well as the diameter of the shaft (e.g., the diameter of the shaft distal end and active electrode) and the amount of axial translation of the shaft. (By a “single rotational pass” of the shaft is meant one axial translation of the shaft in a distal direction through the tissue, in the presence of rotation of the shaft about the longitudinal axis of the shaft, with the power from the power supply turned on.) To a large extent, the diameter of a channel formed during a rotational pass of the shaft through tissue can be controlled by the amount of rotation of the shaft, wherein the “amount of rotation” encompasses both the rate of rotation (e.g., the angular velocity of the shaft), and the number of degrees through which the shaft is rotated (e.g. the number of turns) per unit length of axial movement. Typically, according to the invention, the amount of axial translation per pass (for either a straight pass or a rotational pass) is not limited by the length of the shaft. Instead, the amount of axial translation per single pass is preferably determined by the size of the tissue to be ablated. Depending on the size of the disc or other tissue to be treated, and the nature of the treatment, etc., a channel formed by a probe of the instant invention may preferably have a length in the range of from about 2 mm to about 50 mm, and a diameter in the range of from about 0.5 mm to about 7.5 mm. In comparison, a channel formed by a shaft of the instant invention during a single rotational pass may preferably have a diameter in the range of from about 1.5 mm to about 25 mm.

[0255] A channel formed by a shaft of the instant invention during a single straight pass may have a volume in the range of from about 1 mm³, or less, to about 2,500 mm³. Typically, a channel formed by a straight pass of a shaft of the instant invention has a volume in the range of from about 10 mm³ to about 2,500 mm³, and more typically in the range of from about 50 mm³ to about 2,500 mm³. In comparison, a channel formed by a shaft of the instant invention during a single rotational pass typically has a volume from about twice to about 15 times the volume of a channel of the same length formed during a single rotational pass, i.e., in the range of from about 2 mm³ to about 4,000 mm³, more preferably in the range of from about 50 mm² to about 2,000 mm³. While not being bound by theory, the reduction in volume of a disc having one or more channels therein is a function of the total volume of the one or more channels.

[0256]FIG. 40 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method of guiding the distal end of a shaft of an electrosurgical probe to a target site within an inter-vertebral disc for ablation of specifically targeted disc tissue, wherein steps 1300 and 1302 are analogous to steps 1200 and 1204 of FIG. 39. Thereafter step 1304 involves guiding the shaft distal end to a defined region within the disc. The specific target site may be pre-defined as a result of a previous procedure to visualize the disc and its abnormality, e.g., via X-ray examination, endoscopically, or fluoroscopically. As an example, a defined target site within a disc may comprise a fragment of the nucleus pulposus that has migrated within the annulus fibrosus (see, e.g., FIG. 36D) resulting in discogenic pain. However, guiding the shaft to defined sites associated with other types of disc disorders is also possible and is within the scope of the invention.

[0257] Guiding the shaft distal end to the defined target site may be performed by axial and/or rotational movement of a curved shaft, as described hereinabove. Or the shaft may be steerable, for example, by means of a guide wire, as is well known in the art. Guiding the shaft distal end may be performed during visualization of the location of the shaft relative to the disc, wherein the visualization may be performed endoscopically or via fluoroscopy. Endoscopic examination may employ a fiber optic cable (not shown). The fiber optic cable may be integral with the electrosurgical probe, or be part of a separate instrument (endoscope). Step 1306 involves ablating disc tissue, and is analogous to step 1206 (FIG. 39). Before or during step 1306, an electrically conductive fluid may be applied to the disc tissue and/or the shaft in order to provide a path for current flow between active and return electrodes on the shaft, and to facilitate and/or maintain a plasma in the vicinity of the distal end portion of the shaft. After the shaft distal end has been guided to a target site and tissue at that site has been ablated, the shaft may be moved locally, e.g., within the same region of the nucleus pulposus, or to a second defined target site within the same disc. The shaft distal end may be moved as described herein (e.g., with reference to step 1210, FIG. 39). Or, according to an alternative embodiment, the shaft may be steerable, e.g., by techniques well known in the art. Steps 1310 and 1312 are analogous to steps 1212 and 1214, respectively (described with reference to FIG. 39).

[0258] It is known in the art that epidural steroid injections can transiently diminish perineural inflammation of an affected nerve root, leading to alleviation of discogenic pain. In one embodiment of the invention, methods for ablation of disc tissue described hereinabove may be conveniently performed in conjunction with an epidural steroid injection. For example, ablation of disc tissue and epidural injection could be carried out as part of a single procedure, by the same surgeon, using equipment common to both procedures (e.g. visualization equipment). Combining Coblation® and epidural injection in a single procedure may provide substantial cost-savings to the healthcare industry, as well as a significant improvement in patient care.

[0259] As alluded to hereinabove, methods and apparatus of the present invention can be used to accelerate the healing process of inter-vertebral discs having fissures and/or contained herniations. In one method, the present invention is useful in microendoscopic discectomy procedures, e.g., for decompressing a nerve root with a lumbar discectomy. For example, as described above in relation to FIGS. 18-20, a percutaneous penetration can be made in the patient's back so that the superior lamina can be accessed. Typically, a small needle is used initially to localize the disc space level, and a guide wire is inserted and advanced under lateral fluoroscopy to the inferior edge of the lamina. Sequential cannulated dilators can be inserted over the guide wire and each other to provide a hole from the incision to the lamina. The first dilator may be used to “palpate” the lamina, assuring proper location of its tip between the spinous process and facet complex just above the inferior edge of the lamina. A tubular retractor can then be passed over the largest dilator down to the lamina. The dilators can then be removed, so as to establish an operating corridor within the tubular retractor. It should be appreciated however, that other conventional or proprietary methods can be used to access the target inter-vertebral disc. Once the target inter-vertebral disc has been accessed, an introducer device may be inserted into the inter-vertebral disc.

[0260] With reference to FIG. 41, in one embodiment, both introducer needle 928 and a second or ancillary introducer 938 may be inserted into the same disc, to allow introduction of an ancillary device 940 into the target disc via ancillary introducer 938. Ancillary device 940 may comprise, for example, a fluid delivery device, a return electrode, an aspiration lumen, a second electrosurgical probe, or an endoscope having an optical fiber component. Each of introducer needle 928 and ancillary introducer 938 may be advanced through the annulus fibrosus until at least the distal end portion of each introducer 928 and 938, is positioned within the nucleus pulposus. Thereafter, shaft 902″ of electrosurgical probe 900′ may be inserted through at least one of introducers 928, 938, to treat the inter-vertebral disc. Typically, shaft 902″ of probe 900′ has an outer diameter no larger than about 7 French (1 Fr: 0.33 mm), and preferably between about 6 French and 7 French.

[0261] Prior to inserting electrosurgical probe 900 into the inter-vertebral disc, an electrically conductive fluid can be delivered into the disk via a fluid delivery assembly (e.g., ancillary device 940) in order to facilitate or promote the Coblation® mechanism within the disc following the application of a high frequency voltage via probe 900′. By providing a separate device (940) for fluid delivery, the dimensions of electrosurgical probe 900′ can be kept to a minimum. Furthermore, when the fluid delivery assembly is positioned within ancillary introducer 938, electrically conductive fluid can be conveniently replenished to the interior of the disc at any given time during the procedure. Nevertheless, in other embodiments, the fluid delivery assembly can be physically coupled to electrosurgical probe 900′.

[0262] In some methods, a radiopaque contrast solution (not shown) may be delivered through a fluid delivery assembly so as to allow the surgeon to visualize the inter-vertebral disc under fluoroscopy. In some configurations, a tracking device 942 (e.g., FIG. 42) can be positioned on shaft distal end portion 902″a. Additionally or alternatively, shaft 902″ can be marked incrementally, e.g., with depth markings 903, to indicate to the surgeon how far the active electrode is advanced into the inter-vertebral disc. In one embodiment, tracking device 942 includes a radiopaque material that can be visualized under fluoroscopy. Such a tracking device 942 and depth markings 903 provide the surgeon with means to track the position of the active electrode 910 relative to a specific target site within the disc to which active electrode 910 is to be guided. Such specific target sites may include, for example, an annular fissure, a contained herniation, or a fragment of nucleus pulposus. The surgeon can determine the position of the active electrode 910 by observing the depth markings 903, or by comparing tracking device output, and a fluoroscopic image of the intervertebral disc to a pre-operative fluoroscopic image of the target inter-vertebral disc.

[0263] In other embodiments, an optical fiber (not shown) can be introduced into the disc. The optical fiber may be either integral with probe 900′ or may be introduced as part of an ancillary device 940 via ancillary introducer 938. In this manner, the surgeon can visually monitor the interior of the inter-vertebral disc and the position of active electrode 910.

[0264] In addition to monitoring the position of the distal portion of electrosurgical probe 900′, the surgeon can also monitor whether the probe is in Coblation® mode. In most embodiments, power supply 28 (e.g., FIG. 1) includes a controller having an indicator, such as a light, an audible sound, or a liquid crystal display (LCD), to indicate whether probe 900′ is generating a plasma within the disc. If it is determined that the Coblation mechanism is not occurring, (e.g., due to an insufficiency of electrically conductive fluid within the disc), the surgeon can then replenish the supply of the electrically conductive fluid to the disc.

[0265]FIG. 42 is a side view of an electrosurgical probe 900′ including shaft 902″ having tracking device 942 located at distal end portion 902″a. Tracking device 942 may serve as a radiopaque marker adapted for guiding distal end portion 902″a within a disc. Shaft 902″ also includes at least one active electrode 910 disposed on the distal end portion 902″a. Preferably, electrically insulating support member or collar 916 is positioned proximal of active electrode 910 to insulate active electrode 910 from at least one return electrode 918. In most embodiments, the return electrode 918 is positioned on the distal end portion of the shaft 902″ and proximal of the active electrode 910. In other embodiments, however, return electrode 918 can be omitted from shaft 902″, in which case at least one return electrode may be provided on ancillary device 940, or the return electrode may be positioned on the patient's body, as a dispersive pad (not shown).

[0266] Although active electrode 910 is shown in FIG. 42 as comprising a single apical electrode, other numbers, arrangements, and shapes for the active electrode(s) are within the scope of the invention. For example, the probe can include a plurality of electrically isolated active electrodes in a variety of shapes. Active electrode 910 will usually have a smaller exposed surface area than return electrode 918, such that the current density is much higher at active electrode 910 than at return electrode 918. Preferably, return electrode 918 has a relatively large, smooth surfaces extending around shaft 902″ in order to reduce current densities in the vicinity of return electrode 918, thereby minimizing damage to non-target tissue.

[0267] While bipolar delivery of a high frequency energy is the preferred method of debulking the nucleus pulposus, it should be appreciated that other energy sources (i.e., resistive, or the like) can be used, and the energy can be delivered with other methods (i.e., monopolar, conductive, or the like) to debulk the nucleus pulposus.

[0268]FIG. 43A shows a steerable electrosurgical probe 950 including a shaft 952, according to another embodiment of the invention. Preferably, shaft 952 is flexible and may assume a substantially linear configuration as shown. Probe 950 includes handle 904, shaft distal end 952 a, active electrode 910, insulating collar 916, and return electrode 918. As can be seen in FIG. 43B, under certain circumstances, e.g., upon application of a force to shaft 952 during guiding or steering probe 950 during a procedure, shaft distal end 952 a can adopt a non-linear configuration, designated 952′a. The deformable nature of shaft distal end 952 a/952′a allows active electrode 910 to be guided to a specific target site within a disc.

[0269]FIG. 44 shows steerable electrosurgical probe 950 inserted within the nucleus pulposus of an inter-vertebral disc. An ancillary device 940 and ancillary introducer 928 may also be inserted within the nucleus pulposus of the same disc. To facilitate the debulking of the nucleus pulposus adjacent to a contained herniation, shaft 952 (FIG. 43A) can be manipulated to a non-linear configuration, represented as 952′. Preferably, shaft 955/952′ is flexible over at least shaft distal end 952 a (FIGS. 43A-B) so as to allow steering of active electrode 910 to a position adjacent to the targeted disc abnormality. The flexible shaft may be combined with a sliding outer shield, a sliding outer introducer needle, pull wires, shape memory actuators, and other known mechanisms (not shown) for effecting selective deflection of distal end 952 a to facilitate positioning of active electrode 910 within a disc. Thus, it can be seen that the embodiment of FIG. 44 may be used for the targeted treatment of annular fissures, or any other disc disorder in which the application of RF energy (either in the ablation mode or the sub-ablation mode) is indicated.

[0270] In one embodiment shaft 952 has a suitable diameter and length to allow the surgeon to reach the target disc or vertebra by introducing the shaft through the thoracic cavity, the abdomen, or the like. Thus, shaft 952 may have a length in the range of from about 5.0 cm to 30.0 cm, and a diameter in the range of about 0.2 mm to about 20 mm. Alternatively, shaft 952 may be delivered percutaneously in a posterior lateral approach. Regardless of the approach, shaft 952 may be introduced via a rigid or flexible endoscope. In addition, it should be noted that the methods described with reference to FIGS. 41 and 44 may also be performed in the absence of ancillary introducer 938 and ancillary device 940.

[0271]FIG. 45 is a block diagram representing an electrosurgical system 1400, according to another embodiment of the invention. System 1400 includes an electrosurgical probe 1410 electrically coupled to a power supply 1440, an introducer unit 1420 for introducing a working portion of probe 1410 into a patient's body, and a positioning unit 1430. Positioning unit 1430 is in communication with introducer unit 1420, and is adapted for monitoring the axial location of probe 1410 in relation to introducer unit 1420. In some embodiments, positioning unit 1430 is further adapted for moving introducer unit 1420 axially relative to probe 1410. For example in one embodiment, actuation of positioning unit 1430 advances or retracts introducer unit 1420 with respect to probe 1410. In one embodiment, actuation of positioning unit 1430 causes introducer unit 1420 to advance or retract while probe 1410 remains stationary. In some embodiments, the positioning unit may be integral with the introducer unit (e.g., FIG. 46). Power supply 1440 is adapted for supplying a high frequency voltage to probe 1410 in at least one of the ablation mode and the subablation mode. The ablation mode and the sub-ablation mode of electrosurgical systems of the invention were described hereinabove. In one embodiment, power supply 1440 is switchable between the ablation mode and the sub-ablation mode, for example, via one or more foot pedals (e.g., FIG. 1), generally as described hereinabove.

[0272]FIG. 46 is a block diagram representing an introducer unit 1420′ of an electrosurgical apparatus, according to the instant invention. Introducer unit 1420′ includes an introducer needle 1450 or similar introducer device. Introducer needle 1450 is adapted for insertion into the body of a patient, and is further adapted for passage of at least a distal portion of an electrosurgical probe therethrough. Introducer unit 1420′ further includes an integral positioning unit 1430′ in communication with introducer needle 1450. Positioning unit 1430′ is adapted for monitoring the location of the probe relative to introducer needle 1450, for axially moving (advancing and retracting) introducer needle 1450 relative to the probe. Introducer unit 1420′ may further include a depth guide 1480, e.g., in the form of one or more depth markings on an external surface of introducer needle 1450. Depth guide 1480 serves to monitor the depth of penetration of introducer needle 1450 into the body of a patient. Introducer unit 1420′ may further include an introducer stop unit 1470 for preventing penetration of introducer needle 1450 into the body of a patient beyond a pre-defined depth.

[0273]FIG. 47A represents an electrosurgical probe 1500, according to the instant invention, wherein probe 1500 includes a shaft 1502 affixed to a handle 1504, and a connecting unit 1540 coupled to handle 1504. Connecting unit 1540 includes an extension lead 1542 coupled to a connection block 1544, and a connection housing 1546 for accommodating connection block 1544. Connection block 1544 is adapted for coupling active and return electrodes to a power supply (e.g., FIG. 45) via an electrical cable (e.g., FIG. 1, FIG. 48). Extension lead 1542 is thinner and lighter than electrical cable 1690 (FIG. 48), as will be described in detail hereinbelow. Connecting unit 1540, and in particular extension lead 1542, circumvents the requirement to couple the probe directly to a relatively heavy, bulky cable, thereby facilitating manipulation of the probe by the surgeon, and preventing discomfort to the patient.

[0274]FIG. 47B represents an electrosurgical probe 1500′, according to the invention. Probe 1500′ includes an active electrode head 1510 coupled to an active electrode filament 1512. An electrically insulating inner sleeve 1514, such as a layer of a polyimide, encases electrode filament 1512. An electrically insulating collar or spacer 1516, e.g., an annulus comprising a ceramic or a silicone rubber, is disposed on the distal end of electrode filament 1512 adjacent to electrode head 1510. In one embodiment, spacer 1516 comprises alumina. A return electrode 1518 is located proximal to spacer 1516. A proximal portion of return electrode 1518 maybe encased within an electrically insulating outer sleeve 1520, such as a second layer of a polyimide.

[0275]FIG. 48 schematically represents an electrosurgical system 1600, according to one embodiment of the invention. System 1600 is adapted for introducing the distal portion of an electrosurgical probe into a patient's body to access a target tissue, and for applying a high frequency voltage to the probe in order to treat the target tissue. In one embodiment, the probe is introduced into the patient percutaneously, and the target tissue is a cervical inter-vertebral disc, as will be described in enabling detail hereinbelow. System 1600 includes an introducer needle 1650, a probe 1601 adapted for passage within needle 1650, and a high frequency power supply 1640 coupled to probe 1601. System 1600 further includes a positioning unit 1630 for monitoring a position or location of probe 1601 in relation to introducer needle 1650. Probe 1601 generally includes a shaft 1602 affixed at its proximal end to a handle 1604, and an electrode assembly 1622 disposed at the distal end of shaft 1602. Electrode assembly 1622 typically includes a terminal active electrode and a return electrode (e.g., FIG. 50).

[0276] Probe 1601 further includes an extension lead 1642 coupled to the active electrode and the return electrode. Extension lead 1642 is affixed at its distal end 1642 a to handle 1604, and is coupled at its proximal end 1642 b to a connection block 1644. Typically, connection block 1644 is housed within a connection housing 1646. Connection block 1644 is adapted for coupling probe 1601 to a high frequency power supply 1640 via an electrical cable 1690. Extension lead 1642 is lighter, narrower, and more flexible than cable 1690. Typically, extension lead 1642 has a diameter in the range of from about 0.5 mm to about 2.5 mm, more typically from about 1 mm to about 2 mm. Typically, extension lead 1642 has a length in the range of from about 40 cm to about 80 cm, more typically from about 50 cm to about 70 cm. The inclusion of extension lead 1642 facilitates manipulation of probe 1601 by the surgeon, and prevents contact of cable 1690 with the patient's body.

[0277] Needle 1650 is adapted for insertion into a patient's body. Needle 1650 includes a lumen 1654, adapted for passing electrode assembly 1622 and the distal portion of shaft 1602 therethrough. As an example, needle 1650 may be a 20 Gauge hypodermic needle. Needle 1650 typically includes at least one depth marking, e.g., marking 1682 n, on an external surface of needle 1650. Such depth markings serve to monitor or indicate the depth of penetration of needle 1650 within the body of the patient. Needle 1650 may further include a needle stop unit 1670 for limiting the depth of penetration of needle 1650 within the patient's tissues, organ, or body. In one embodiment, stop unit 1670 is movable with respect to needle 1650, and stop unit 1670 includes a needle stop adjusting element 1672 for adjusting the position of stop unit 1670 in relation to needle 1650, and for anchoring stop unit 1670 at a specific location with respect to needle 1650.

[0278]FIG. 49A schematically represents an electrosurgical apparatus including a probe 1701 at a first location P1 in relation to an introducer needle 1750. Probe 1701 includes a shaft 1702 having a shaft distal end 1702 a, a shaft proximal end 1702 b, and a handle 1704 disposed at shaft proximal end 1702 b. Probe 1701 further includes an electrode assembly 1722 disposed at shaft distal end 1702 a. Electrode assembly 1722 typically includes a distal active electrode and a proximal return electrode separated by an electrically insulating spacer (e.g., FIG. 50). Introducer needle 1750 includes a needle distal end 1752 a, a needle proximal end 1752 b, and a needle lumen 1754.

[0279] A positioning unit 1730 is located at the proximal end of introducer needle 1750. Positioning unit 1730 may be integral with introducer needle 1750 or may be a separate device (e.g., FIGS. 45, 46). Positioning unit 1730 allows the operator (surgeon) to monitor the axial location of probe 1701 in relation to introducer needle 1750. For example, at position P1 (FIG. 49A), electrode assembly 1722 is located within needle lumen 1754 adjacent to needle distal end 1752 a. At position PI, probe 1701 is not activated, i.e., a high frequency voltage is not applied to electrode assembly 1722. Activation of probe 1701 at position P1 may irreparably damage probe 1701. Positioning unit 1730 allows the operator to readily monitor probe 1701 as being at position P1.

[0280] Typically, positioning unit 1730 is adapted for moving introducer needle 1750 axially in relation to probe 1701. Thus, introducer needle 1750 can be retracted or advanced relative to probe 1701 by actuating positioning unit 1730. For example, FIG. 49B shows introducer needle 1750 having been retracted relative to probe 1701 in order to expose a length L1 of probe 1701 (position P2). As shown in FIG. 49C, introducer needle 1750 can be further retracted relative to probe 1701 in order to expose a length L2 of probe 1701 (position P3). Typically, when positioning unit 1730 is actuated to advance or retract introducer needle 1750 with respect to probe 1701, probe 1701 may remain stationary.

[0281] In some embodiments, position P2 represents a minimum protrusion of probe 1701 distal to needle distal end 1752 a for activation of electrode assembly 1722. Typically, in the case of a probe adapted for treatment of cervical intervertebral discs of an adult, the length L1 is in the range of from about 1 mm to about 7 mm, more typically from about 1.5 mm to about 4 mm, and usually from about 2 mm to 3 mm. Similarly, position P3 may represent a maximum protrusion of probe 1701 distal to needle distal end 1752 a. Typically, the length L2 is in the range of from about 10 mm to about 20 mm, more typically from about 12 mm to about 18 mm, and usually around 15 mm. Thus, the total length of “working travel” of introducer needle 1750 with respect to probe 1701 (e.g., retraction of introducer needle 1750 in moving from position P2 to position P3) is usually on the order of about 10 mm. In some embodiments, positioning unit 1730 is further adapted for sequentially locking probe 1701 in a plurality of different locations relative to introducer needle 1750. For example, positioning unit 1730 can be used to lock probe 1701 in any one of positions P1, P2, or P3. Furthermore, in some embodiments positioning unit 1750 can be used to lock probe 1701 in a position intermediate between positions P2 and P3.

[0282] The mechanism by which the positioning unit achieves axial advancement or retraction of the introducer needle relative to the probe is, to some extent, a matter of design choice. For example, the introducer needle may be advanced or retracted relative to the probe by a ratchet mechanism (not shown), the latter well known in the art. Alternatively, the introducer needle may be advanced or retracted relative to the probe by a threaded rod which moves axially as it is screwed/unscrewed into a complementary threaded bore; or by a wheel, mounted on the introducer needle in axial alignment with the probe, which engagingly rotates against a friction element arranged on the probe shaft (also not shown). In some embodiments, the probe will not have a positioning unit, and the physician may use his or her judgement as to the proper positioning of the probe, or simply use depth markings on the probe shaft. In one particular embodiment, the physician advances the probe through the nucleus of the disc until he/she feels that the probe has advanced against the inner surface of the annulus. The physician then notes the marking on the shaft, and uses this marking as a depth limit to ensure that the probe does not advance into or past the annulus after the power supply has been activated.

[0283]FIG. 50 schematically represents the distal portion of an electrosurgical probe 1800, according to one embodiment of the invention. Probe 1800 includes a terminal active electrode head 1810 in communication proximally with a first wire 1812 a and a second wire 1812 b via a fused portion 1813. In one embodiment, electrode head 1810 may be formed, for example, by folding a length of wire to form a distal loop and a proximal filament 1812, wherein filament 1812 is comprised of first wire 1812 a and second wire 1812 b (e.g., FIGS. 52A-B). Electrode head 1810 has an apical portion or point 1811. Apical point 1811 may be shaped to provide a suitable geometry for promoting relatively high current densities thereat upon application of a high frequency voltage. As noted hereinabove, such high current densities promote initiation and maintenance of a plasma at the surface of the active electrode and ablation of tissue by electrosurgical vaporization.

[0284] Filament 1812 includes distal fused portion 1813. Fused portion 1813 may be provided by joining first wire 1812 a to second wire 1812 b, e.g., via welding over a suitable axial distance in the range of perhaps from about 0.5 mm to 2 mm. Fused portion 1813 prevents separation of first wire 1812 a and second wire 1812 b. Filament 1812 is encased within an electrically insulating inner sleeve 1814. An electrically insulating collar or spacer 1816 is disposed at the distal end of filament 1812 immediately proximal to electrode head 1810. An electrically conducting layer 1824 is disposed external to inner sleeve 1814. As an example, layer 1824 maybe a metal tube, e.g., a cylinder comprising stainless steel, or the like. The distal end of layer 1824 lies adjacent to the proximal end of spacer 1816. A proximal portion of layer 1824 is encased within an electrically insulating outer sleeve 1820, while an exposed distal portion of layer 1824 forms a return electrode 1818. Active electrode head 1810 and filament 1812 are typically comprised from platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, or their alloys, and the like.

[0285] FIGS. 51A-C each schematically represents an active electrode for a medical instrument, according to three different embodiments of the invention. FIG. 51A shows an active electrode 1900 a having an electrode filament 1912 a, and an active electrode head 1910 a in the form of a metal sphere. In one embodiment, electrode 1900 a comprises a ball wire. FIG. 51B shows an active electrode 1900 b having an electrode filament 1912 b and an active electrode head 1910 b. In one embodiment, active electrode head 1910 b may be formed by shaping a distal portion of a ball wire to a distal or apical point 1911 b. FIG. 51C shows an active electrode 1900 c having an electrode filament 1912 c and an active electrode head 1910 c. In one embodiment, active electrode 1900 c is formed by sharpening a distal portion of a length of wire to provide electrode head 1910 c having a distal or apical point 1911 c. Each of electrodes 1900 a through 1900 c may comprise a metal such as platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, or their alloys.

[0286] FIGS. 52A-B each schematically represents an active electrode having an apical or distal electrode head in the form of a loop, according to two different embodiments of the invention. FIG. 52A shows an active electrode 1900 d having a filament 1912 d and an active electrode head 1910 d, wherein electrode head 1910 d is in the form of a substantially rectangular or square loop, the loop arranged substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of filament 1912 d. (Typically, filament 1912 d is arranged substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the probe.) In one embodiment, electrode head 1910 d is formed by providing a length of wire, making a first bend in the wire counter-clockwise at an angle of about 90°, making a second bend in the wire clockwise at an angle of about 90°, making a third bend in the wire clockwise at an angle of about 90°, making a fourth bend in the wire clockwise at an angle of about 90°, making a fifth bend in the wire clockwise at an angle of about 90°, and making a sixth bend in the wire counter-clockwise at an angle of about 90°. In this way, filament 1912 d comprises a pair of wires which may lie substantially parallel to each other, or may be merely juxtaposed. The pair of wires may be joined, e.g., by welding, at one or more locations, e.g., just proximal to electrode head 1910 d (e.g., FIG. 50).

[0287]FIG. 52B shows an active electrode 1900 e having an electrode filament 1912 e comprising a pair of wires, which may be joined at one or more locations, as described for electrode 1900 d (FIG. 52A). An active electrode head 1910 e is disposed at the distal end of filament 1912 e, wherein electrode head 1910 e is in the form of a substantially rectangular or square loop arranged at an angle to the longitudinal axis of filament 1912 d. Typically, the loop of electrode head 1910 e is arranged at an angle to the longitudinal axis of filament 1912 d in the range of from about 30° to 60°, and more typically around 45°. In one embodiment, electrode head 1910 e may be formed by providing a length of wire, making a first bend in the wire counter-clockwise at an angle of about 45°, making a second bend in the wire clockwise at an angle of about 90°, making a third bend in the wire clockwise at an angle of about 90°, making a fourth bend in the wire clockwise at an angle of about 90°, and making a fifth bend in the wire counter-clockwise at an angle of about 45°. Electrodes 1900 d and 1900 e may be constructed from a wire comprising a metal such as platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, or their alloys, and the like. Typically, electrodes 1900 d and 1900 e may be constructed from a wire having a diameter in the range of from about 0.004 inch to about 0.016 inch, and more typically from about 0.006 inch to about 0.012 inch.

[0288] FIGS. 53A-C represent stages in forming an active electrode loop from a wire or filament 2012, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 53A represents providing a wire or filament 2012 of an electrically conducting material, having a distal end portion 2012 a. Filament 2012 may comprise a metal such as platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, or their alloys, and the like. FIG. 53B represents filament 2012 having a substantially rectangular, elongate void 2003 formed in distal end portion 2012 a. As an example, void 2003 may be formed in filament 2012 using various laser techniques, such techniques being well known in the art. FIG. 53C represents distal end portion 2012 a after elongate void 2003 has been opened and shaped to form void 2003′, to provide an electrode head 2010 in the form of a substantially square loop. Electrode head 2010 includes an apical point 2011, which may be shaped or sharpened to provide a suitable electrode head geometry. Active electrode head 2010 may be used in the construction of a bipolar electrosurgical probe (e.g., FIG. 50) adapted for treatment of cervical discs, and the like.

[0289]FIG. 54 schematically represents a procedure for electrosurgical treatment of a cervical inter-vertebral disc, according to one embodiment of the invention. As shown, an electrosurgical apparatus 2100 including a probe 2101 and an introducer device 2150 is inserted percutaneously into the neck, NK of the patient in order to target a cervical inter-vertebral disc. Approaches other than that depicted in FIG. 54 are also possible under the invention. In addition, apparatus of the invention may also be used to treat target tissues other than inter-vertebral discs.

[0290] FIGS. 55A-C each schematically represent positioning an electrosurgical apparatus within a cervical inter-vertebral disc, according to the invention. FIG. 55A shows apparatus 2200 introduced into nucleus pulposus 294′ of disc 290′. Apparatus 2200 comprises a probe 2201 including a shaft having a shaft distal end 2202 a, and an electrode assembly 2222 located at the shaft distal end (e.g., FIGS. 49A-C, FIG. 50). Shaft distal end 2202 a is adapted for passage within introducer needle 2250. In use, probe 2201 is coupled to a high frequency power supply (e.g., FIGS. 1, 45, 48) for applying a high frequency voltage to the electrode assembly. Shaft distal end 2202 a of probe 2201 is located within the lumen of introducer needle 2250 (FIG. 55A). This location of probe 2201 in relation to introducer needle 2250 is analogous to position P1 of FIG. 49A. In the position shown in FIG. 55A, the electrode assembly is not activated (i.e., a voltage is not applied from the high frequency power supply). Before, the electrode assembly is activated to treat a target tissue, the shaft distal end is made to protrude from the distal end of introducer needle 2250. This may be achieved by retracting introducer needle 2250 relative to probe 2201, for example by actuating a positioning unit as described hereinabove (e.g., with reference to FIGS. 49A-C).

[0291] Once a minimum length of the shaft is exposed, as represented in FIG. 55B, the probe maybe activated to treat the tissue. The location of probe 2201, in relation to introducer needle 2250, shown in FIG. 55B is analogous to position P2 of FIG. 49B. After the minimum length of the shaft is exposed to nucleus pulposus 294′ and the probe is activated, the probe may be axially translated within nucleus pulposus 294′. Axial translation of probe 2201 in the ablation mode will tend to form a void or channel in nucleus pulposus 294′ by volumetric removal of nucleus pulposus tissue. Axial translation of probe 2201 within the disc may be performed manually, during which process the operator may use tactile feedback to determine an appropriate rate and extent of axial translation. For example, the operator may manipulate probe 2201 manually while receiving tactile feedback as probe 2201 is advanced axially to form an ablation channel within nucleus pulposus 294′. During axial translation of probe 2201 within the disc, introducer needle 2250 may remain stationary. In some embodiments, probe 2201 is also rotatable within introducer needle 2250 (as represented by arrow A). In one embodiment, probe 2201 may be manually rotated within introducer needle 2250 through an angle of up to about 360° or more. In the case of a loop electrode (e.g., FIG. 50), axial translation of probe 2201 maybe combined with rotation of the shaft to create a substantially cylindrical channel in the nucleus pulposus.

[0292] With reference to FIG. 55C, the distal end of introducer needle 2250 is shown as being withdrawn from nucleus pulposus 294′, and adjacent to annulus fibrosus 292′. Again with reference to FIG. 55C, the shaft of probe 2201 protrudes distally from introducer needle 2250, essentially to a maximum distance. The location of probe 2201 with respect to introducer needle 2250 shown in FIG. 55C is analogous to position P3 described hereinabove with reference to FIG. 49C. Various locations of probe 2201, with respect to introducer needle 2250, maybe monitored, adjusted, and locked in place, using a positioning unit as described hereinabove (e.g., with reference to FIGS. 49A-C). Cervical discs 290′ represented as undergoing treatment in FIGS. 55A-C may have abnormalities or disorders similar to those described hereinabove, e.g., with reference to FIGS. 36B-36D.

[0293]FIG. 56 is a block diagram representing an electrosurgical system 2400, according to another embodiment of the invention. System 2400 includes a shaft 2402, an electrically insulating spacer 2416 disposed on shaft 2402, and an active electrode 2410 disposed on spacer 2416. Shaft 2402 typically comprises an electrically conducting material, such as platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, or their alloys. System 2400 further includes an introducer needle 2420 having a lumen therethrough, the lumen adapted for accommodating shaft 2402 therein (e.g., FIGS. 57A-D). Introducer needle 2420 may be in the form of a cylinder comprising an electrically conducting material, such as platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, or their alloys. In one embodiment, shaft 2402 comprises a metal cylinder adapted for slidable engagement within introducer needle 2420, and for making electrical contact therewith. When shaft 2402 is engaged within introducer needle 2420 and makes electrical contact therewith, shaft 2402 in combination with introducer needle 2420 comprise a return electrode 2418. In one embodiment, shaft 2402 has a naked or exposed, i.e., uninsulated, outer surface extending the entire length of shaft 2402. A coating of an electrically insulating material typically covers a proximal portion of the exterior of introducer needle 2420 (e.g., FIGS. 57A-C). Typically, shaft 2402 and introducer needle 2420 each have a length of at least 5 cm, and often have a length of at least 15 cm. System 2400 further includes a high frequency power supply 2428 for applying a high frequency voltage between active electrode 2410 and return electrode 2418. Active electrode 2410 and shaft 2402 are independently coupled to a connection block 2444. Connection block 2444 provides a convenient mechanism for coupling active electrode 2410 and shaft 2402 to power supply 2428.

[0294]FIG. 57A is a longitudinal sectional view of an introducer device 2520, according to one embodiment of the invention. Introducer device 2520 includes an introducer distal end 2520 a and an introducer proximal end 2520 b. Typically, introducer device 2520 has a length in the range of from about 5 cm to 30 cm, usually from about 7 cm to 20 cm, and often from about 10 cm to 18 cm. Introducer device 2520 includes an axial introducer lumen 2522 extending therethrough. Introducer lumen 2522 usually has a diameter, D1 in the range of from about 0.2 mm to 10 mm, more typically from about 0.7 mm to 4 mm, and often from about 1 mm to 2.5 mm. Introducer device 2520 usually has an external diameter, Do in the range of from about 1 mm to 12 mm, more typically from about 1.5 mm to 6 mm, and often from about 1.5 mm to 4 mm. An external coating 2424 of an electrically insulating material is disposed on an outer surface of device 2520. External coating 2524 may comprise a layer of a synthetic polymer. According to one embodiment, external coating 2524 is deposited as a thin layer by vapor deposition polymerization. (See, for example, Virmani, N., “Understanding the Effectiveness of Parylene Coatings in the Protection of Plastic Encapsulated Microcircuits & Assemblies from Moisture Initiated Failure Mechanisms”, Mar. 31, 1995, http.//arioch.gsfc.nasa.gov/312/parylene/pems.html.) Deposition of external coating 2524 via gas phase polymerization allows the thickness of the coating to be accurately controlled, and ensures conformity and purity of the coating. Typically, external coating 2524 has a thickness in the range of from about 0.1 μm to 1 mm, usually from about 0.5 μm to 0.5 mm, and often from about 1 μm to 0.3 mm. In one embodiment, external coating 2524 comprises a poly-para-xylylene, such as Parylene N, Parylene C, or Parylene D (Union Carbide). Parylene compounds exhibit good barrier and dielectric properties, as well as chemical inertness/biocompatibility, and the ability to withstand a wide range of temperatures (e.g., from 100° C. to −160° C.) (see, for example, Virmani, N., ibid.).

[0295] Typically, external coating 2524 extends from introducer proximal end 2520 b and terminates at a location proximal to the distal terminus of device 2520 to define an exposed portion 2520 a′. Exposed portion 2520 a′ usually has a length in the range of from about 2 mm to 12 mm, more typically from about 3 mm to 8 mm, and often from about 4 mm to 6 mm. In one embodiment, introducer device 2520 may be a modified needle, e.g., a Crawford needle, having a beveled distal end (not shown).

[0296]FIG. 57B is a longitudinal sectional view of an electrosurgical apparatus 2500, including introducer device 2520, according to the invention. Apparatus 2500 includes a shaft 2502 having a shaft distal end 2502 a and a shaft proximal end 2502 b. An electrically insulating spacer 2516 is disposed on shaft distal end 2502 a. Spacer 2516 typically comprises a material such as a ceramic, a glass, a polymer such as a polyimide, or a silicone rubber. An active electrode head 2510 is disposed on spacer 2516. Active electrode head 2510 is adapted for ablating, coagulating, or otherwise modifying a target tissue, and may have the various features and characteristics of active electrode terminals described hereinabove with reference to other aspects of the invention.

[0297] Again with reference to FIG. 57B, shaft 2502 is shown engaged within introducer device 2520. Shaft 2502 comprises an uninsulated (naked) electrically conducting material, and makes electrical contact with introducer device 2520. Shaft proximal end 2502 b is affixed to a handle 2504. Handle 2504 houses a connection block 2506. Active electrode 2510 is electrically coupled to connection block 2506 via an active electrode filament 2512. Shaft 2502 is independently coupled to connection block 2506 via a return electrode lead 2503. Connection block 2506 is electrically coupled to a high frequency power supply 2528 via a cable 2526. Thus, shaft 2502 and active electrode head 2510 are independently coupled to power supply 2528 via connection block 2506. Power supply 2528 is capable of operating in at least one of the ablation mode and the sub-ablation mode. The ablation mode and the subablation mode were described hereinabove (e.g., with reference to FIG. 1).

[0298]FIG. 57C is a cross-sectional view of electrosurgical apparatus 2500, taken along the lines 57C-57C of FIG. 57B, showing contact between shaft 2502 and an inner surface of introducer device 2520. As shown, active electrode filament 2512 lies within shaft 2502. FIG. 57D schematically represents a distal end 2500 a of apparatus 2500, showing current flux lines 2560 between active electrode head 2510 and exposed portion 2520 a′ of introducer device 2520. Active electrode head 2510 and shaft 2502 are coupled to opposite poles of power supply 2528 (FIG. 57B). At the same time, shaft 2502 makes electrical contact with introducer device 2520. Thus, the return electrode of apparatus 2500 comprises shaft 2502 in combination with introducer device 2520.

[0299] According to one aspect of the invention, the arrangement shown in FIGS. 57A-D provides a narrower apparatus (i.e., a probe engaged within an introducer device) and other advantages, as compared with conventional apparatus. For example, many prior art electrosurgical probes use an insulating layer on the exterior of the shaft to radially separate the shaft from the introducer device in order to prevent arcing or coupling between the shaft and the introducer device. By using the introducer device as a return electrode, the insulating layer on the shaft is omitted. With prior art devices, there is a risk of skiving the insulating layer of the shaft as the shaft is passed within the lumen of an introducer device. This risk is eliminated in the embodiment of FIGS. 57A-D. In addition, the external coating 2524 on the introducer device of the invention is typically thinner than the insulating layer on the shaft of many prior art devices. In some prior art devices having an insulating layer on the shaft, an additional protective layer is disposed on the shaft insulating layer. Such a protective layer is similarly omitted from the embodiment of FIGS. 57A-D. Thus, the embodiment of FIGS. 57A-D allows for a smaller diameter apparatus, as compared with many prior art devices. An electrosurgical apparatus having a narrower cross-section offers advantages in a broad range of procedures.

[0300] According to another aspect of the invention, the arrangement shown in FIGS. 57A-D provides an apparatus requiring a shorter length of the probe to protrude from the distal end of the introducer device while firing the probe, as compared with conventional probe/introducer needle combinations. In many prior art devices, the active electrode needs to be axially spaced from the return electrode in order to provide homogeneous current density at the surface of the active electrode. In turn, the return electrode of such devices needs to be axially spaced from the introducer device to prevent arcing to the introducer device. Therefore, the active electrode of many prior art devices needs to protrude from the distal end of the introducer device by sufficient distance to provide clearance between the return electrode and the introducer device, and to provide sufficient space between the active and return electrodes. Using the introducer needle as a return electrode, as in the embodiment of FIGS. 57A-D, minimizes the distance that the active electrode needs to protrude from the introducer needle for the apparatus to be fired. The electrode configuration of the embodiment of FIGS. 57A-D allows more latitude in placement of the active electrode during firing the probe when the target tissue is located within a confined space or structure, such as within a cervical inter-vertebral disc.

[0301] FIGS. 58A-C schematically represent a distal portion of an electrosurgical probe 2600 having an expandable electrode, according to another embodiment of the invention. Probe 2600 includes a shaft 2602 having a shaft distal end 2602 a, and an active electrode head disposed at the shaft distal end. FIG. 58A shows shaft distal end 2602 a and the active electrode head within an introducer lumen 2622 of an introducer needle 2620. Introducer needle 2620 includes an introducer distal end 2620 a. In FIG. 58A, the active electrode head is constrained within the confines of introducer lumen 2622. The constrained or unexpanded configuration of the active electrode head shown in FIG. 58A is denoted 2610. Prior to firing probe 2600, probe 2600 may be advanced distally with respect to introducer needle 2620, or introducer needle 2620 may be retracted proximally, such that the active electrode head protrudes beyond introducer distal end 2620 a. FIG. 58B shows shaft distal end 2602 a located distal to introducer distal end 2620 a, and the active electrode head in an expanded configuration, designated 2610′. In the expanded configuration 2610′, a larger volume of tissue can be treated by probe 2600 for a given unit of axial and rotational movement of shaft 2602. Active electrode head 2610/2610′ may comprise a shape memory material (e.g., a shape memory alloy (SMA)), or a spring-like material biased towards an expanded configuration. In some embodiments, upon retraction of probe 2600 proximally (closed arrow) within introducer needle 2620, the active electrode head may assume a different constrained configuration, shown as 2610″ in FIG. 58C. It is to be understood that apparatus of the invention may include expandable active electrodes having geometries and configurations other than those shown in FIGS. 58A-C.

[0302] FIGS. 59A-B schematically represent a distal portion of an electrosurgical probe 2700 having an expandable electrode 2710/2710′, according to another embodiment of the invention. Probe 2700 includes a shaft 2702 having a shaft distal end 2702 a, and an active electrode head disposed at shaft distal end 2702 a. FIG. 59A shows shaft distal end 2702 a and the active electrode head within an introducer lumen 2722 of an introducer needle 2720. As shown in FIG. 59A, the active electrode head is constrained within the confines of introducer lumen 2722 in an unexpanded configuration designated 2710. Prior to firing probe 2700, introducer needle 2720 may be axially translated with respect to probe 2700 such that the active electrode head protrudes beyond introducer distal end 2720 a. In FIG. 59B the active electrode head is shown in an expanded configuration, designated 2710′, in the form of a substantially rectangular loop. In the expanded configuration 2710′, a larger volume of tissue can be treated by probe 2700 for a given amount of manipulation or movement of shaft 2702. Active electrode head 2710/2710′ may comprise a spring-like material or a shape memory material (e.g., a shape memory alloy (SMA)).

[0303] Expandable electrodes other than those shown in FIGS. 58A-C and 59A-B may also be used under the invention. For example, an active electrode may include one or more expandable members, wherein the active electrode undergoes a change in shape to an expanded configuration upon actuation by the surgeon of an actuator, which may be driven mechanically or electrically. In another example, an expandable electrode head may be affixed to a tension wire extending to a proximal part of the probe. Application of an axial force in the proximal direction on the tension wire may pull the electrode head into an expanded configuration. In yet another example, an expandable electrode head may be affixed to a rod extending to a proximal part of the probe. Application of an axial force on the rod in the distal direction may push the electrode head into an expanded configuration.

[0304]FIG. 60 schematically represents a series of steps involved in a method for treating a target tissue of an inter-vertebral disc, according to another embodiment of the invention, wherein step 2300 involves introducing an introducer needle into an inter-vertebral disc. In one embodiment, the introducer needle has a needle lumen therethrough, and the introducer needle is adapted for insertion in a cervical intervertebral disc. The needle lumen is adapted for passing therethrough a shaft of an electrosurgical probe. As an example, the introducer needle may be a 20 Gauge needle having a length in the range of from about 2.5 to 6 inches. In one embodiment, the introducer needle comprises an electrically conducting material, and serves as a return electrode for the electrosurgical probe (e.g., FIGS. 57A-D). Typically in the latter embodiment, the external surface of the proximal portion of the needle is coated with a thin layer of an electrically insulating material, leaving an exposed distal portion of the introducer needle. The exposed portion of the needle is typically in the range of from about 2 mm to 12 mm. Step 2302 involves positioning the introducer needle with respect to the target tissue within the disc. In one embodiment, the intervertebral disc is a cervical disc having a disorder or defect, such as a contained herniation, a fissure in the annulus fibrosus, or a fragmentation of the nucleus pulposus (e.g., FIGS. 36B-D).

[0305] One or more stages in the treatment or procedure may be performed under fluoroscopy to allow visualization of the introducer needle and probe shaft within the disc to be treated. Visualization of the shaft may be enhanced by inclusion of a radiopaque tracking device on the distal end of the shaft, as described hereinabove (e.g., FIG. 42). The depth of penetration of the shaft into the patient's body can also be monitored by one or more depth markings on the introducer needle. The depth of penetration of the introducer needle into the patient's body can be controlled, or limited, by an introducer stop unit, or mechanical stop, mounted on the introducer needle (e.g., FIG. 48). In one embodiment, the introducer needle is positioned in step 2302 such that the distal end of the introducer needle is in close proximity to, or aligned with, the target tissue.

[0306] Step 2304 involves positioning an electrode assembly of the electrosurgical probe with respect to the introducer needle. Typically, the probe includes a shaft, and the electrode assembly is disposed at the distal end of the shaft. The electrode assembly typically includes an apical active electrode, and a proximal return electrode. In one embodiment, the shaft proximal end portion is coated with an electrically insulating layer, and the return electrode may comprise an exposed (uninsulated) distal portion of the shaft. The active electrode may be in the form of a loop (e.g., FIGS. 52A-B). In some embodiments, the active electrode may have an expandable head (e.g., FIGS. 58A-C, 59A-B) for increasing the volume of tissue that can be treated during a rotational pass through the target tissue. The shaft distal end is adapted for passage through the needle lumen. In one embodiment, step 2304 involves positioning the electrode assembly within the needle lumen adjacent to the introducer needle distal end (e.g., FIG. 55A).

[0307] In another embodiment, the shaft comprises an electrically conductive material of appropriate external diameter, and the shaft is exposed (i.e., uninsulated) over most or all of its length, such that when the shaft of the probe is engaged within the introducer lumen, the external surface of the shaft makes electrical contact with the introducer needle to form a compound return electrode (e.g., FIGS. 57B-D). That is to say, in the latter embodiment, the return electrode comprises the shaft of the probe in combination with at least a portion of the introducer needle.

[0308] Step 2306 involves moving the introducer needle axially with respect to the shaft, such that the active electrode protrudes distally beyond the needle distal end by at least a minimum distance. This minimum distance will depend, inter alia, on the configuration of the active and return electrodes. In the case of embodiments in which the shaft is insulated from the introducer needle, the minimum distance is typically in the range of from about 2 mm to 7 mm. For embodiments in which the return electrode comprises a naked, uninsulated shaft in combination with the introducer needle, the minimum distance is typically in the range of from about 1 mm to 4 mm. Thus, the minimum distance is usually substantially less for the embodiment in which the introducer needle serves as the return electrode (as described hereinabove, e.g., with reference to FIGS. 57A-D). In the case of a probe adapted for treating cervical inter-vertebral discs, the maximum distance that the electrode assembly protrudes distally beyond the needle distal end is usually in the range of from about 10 mm to 15 mm. Typically, the introducer needle is moved with respect to the shaft by actuation of a positioning unit (e.g., FIGS. 48, 49A-C). The positioning unit may be integral with the introducer needle or may be a separate device.

[0309] Step 2308 involves applying a high frequency voltage between the active and return electrodes via a high frequency power supply capable of operating in at least one of the ablation mode and the sub-ablation mode. Typically, the high frequency power supply is capable of operating in both the ablation mode and the subablation mode (e.g., FIG. 1). The voltage applied in step 2308 is generally within the ranges given hereinabove. For example, the applied voltage is typically in the range of from about 70 volts RMS to 350 volts RMS in the ablation mode, and from about 20 volts RMS to 90 volts RMS in the sub-ablation mode. Step 2310 involves ablating or modifying the target tissue as a result of the applied high frequency voltage. According to the invention, ablation of disc tissue typically involves the plasma-induced molecular dissociation of disc tissue components (e.g., via Coblation®).

[0310] Prior to application of the high frequency voltage, an electrically conductive fluid may be delivered in the vicinity of the probe distal end to provide a current flow path between the active and return electrodes, substantially as described hereinabove. In the ablation mode, extraneously added electrically conductive fluid generally promotes initiation and maintenance of a plasma layer adjacent to the active electrode surface. In one embodiment, a first high frequency voltage is applied (in the ablation mode) sufficient to volumetrically remove disc tissue, and thereafter a second high frequency voltage may be applied (in the sub-ablation mode) to modify the tissue. Modification of the tissue by activating the probe in the sub-ablation mode may include, stiffening, shrinkage, and coagulation.

[0311] Step 2312 involves moving the probe shaft with respect to the disc tissue. In one embodiment, the shaft may be moved during application of the high frequency voltage of step 2308. Movement of the shaft may be in the form of axial translation of the shaft, rotation of the shaft, or both. A combination of axial translation and rotation of a shaft bearing a terminal loop electrode (e.g., FIG. 50) forms a substantially cylindrical channel within the disc tissue. In embodiments having an expandable active electrode (e.g., FIGS. 59A-B), a larger volume of tissue can be treated during combined axial translation and rotation of the electrode in the expanded configuration, as compared with the unexpanded configuration.

[0312] Optionally, after treatment of disc tissue at a first region of the disc, the probe may be moved to target a second region of the disc, and steps 2308 and 2310 may be repeated. After the target tissue has been ablated or modified to a suitable extent, step 2314 involves withdrawing the probe shaft and the introducer needle from the disc and from the patient. By the selective ablation (volumetric removal), contraction, coagulation, or shrinkage of nucleus pulposus tissue, or by a combination of such treatments, the volume of the nucleus pulposus can be decreased, thereby alleviating discogenic pain.

[0313] Although the invention has been described primarily with respect to electrosurgical treatment of inter-vertebral discs, it is to be understood that the methods and apparatus of the invention are also applicable to the treatment of other tissues, organs, and bodily structures. Thus, while the exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been described in detail, by way of example and for clarity of understanding, a variety of changes, adaptations, and modifications will be obvious to those of skill in the art. Therefore, the scope of the present invention is limited solely by the appended claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A return electrode for an electrosurgical apparatus, comprising: a first shaft having an outer surface and comprising a first electrically conducting material; and a second shaft comprising a second electrically conducting material, the second shaft comprising an inner surface, the inner surface defining a lumen within the second shaft, the first shaft passable within the lumen, and the outer surface of the first shaft making electrical contact with the inner surface of the second shaft when the first shaft is engaged within the second shaft.
 2. The return electrode of claim 1, wherein the second shaft includes a distal end and a proximal end, and the proximal end has an electrically insulating external coating.
 3. The return electrode of claim 2, wherein the second shaft comprises an introducer needle, the external coating terminating at a location proximal to the distal end of the introducer needle to define an exposed portion of the introducer needle.
 4. The return electrode of claim 3, wherein the exposed portion has a length in the range of from about 2 mm to 12 mm.
 5. The return electrode of claim 2, wherein the external coating comprises a poly-para-xylylene.
 6. The return electrode of claim 2, wherein the external coating comprises Parylene N, Parylene D, or Parylene C.
 7. The return electrode of claim 2, wherein the external coating is formed by vapor deposition polymerization.
 8. The return electrode of claim 2, wherein the external coating has a thickness in the range of from about 1.0 μm to 0.3 mm.
 9. The return electrode of claim 1, wherein the first electrically conducting material and the second electrically conducting material each comprise a material selected from the group consisting of platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, and their alloys.
 10. An electrosurgical probe, comprising: an active electrode; and a return electrode spaced from the active electrode, wherein the return electrode comprises a first shaft of an electrically conducting material and is adapted for electrical connection to an introducer needle.
 11. The probe of claim 10, wherein the probe further includes a probe shaft, and the first shaft comprises the probe shaft.
 12. The probe of claim 11, wherein the probe shaft includes a shaft distal end, and the probe further comprises an electrically insulating spacer disposed at the shaft distal end.
 13. The probe of claim 12, wherein the active electrode is disposed on the spacer.
 14. The probe of claim 13, wherein the active electrode is expandable.
 15. The probe of claim 11, wherein the introducer needle includes a lumen therethrough, the shaft is adapted for passage within the lumen, and wherein the shaft makes electrical contact with the introducer needle when the shaft is engaged within the lumen.
 16. The probe of claim 10, wherein the first shaft is uninsulated.
 17. The probe of claim 16, wherein the introducer needle has an external coating of an electrically insulating material.
 18. The probe of claim 17, wherein the electrically insulating material comprises a poly-para-xylylene.
 19. An apparatus comprising: an electrosurgical probe, the probe including a shaft having a shaft distal end and a shaft proximal end, an electrically insulating spacer disposed at the shaft distal end, an active electrode disposed on the spacer, and a return electrode located proximal to the spacer, wherein the shaft comprises an uninsulated electrically conducting material, and the return electrode has a length of at least about 5 cm.
 20. The apparatus of claim 19, wherein the return electrode has a length of at least about 15 cm.
 21. The apparatus of claim 19, wherein the return electrode comprises the shaft.
 22. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein the apparatus further comprises an introducer device having an introducer lumen therethrough.
 23. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein the introducer device comprises an introducer needle, the introducer needle adapted for engaging the probe, the introducer lumen adapted for accommodating the shaft when the probe is engaged within the introducer needle.
 24. The apparatus of claim 23, wherein the shaft makes electrical contact with the introducer needle when the shaft is accommodated within the introducer lumen.
 25. The apparatus of claim 24, wherein the return electrode further comprises at least a portion of the introducer needle.
 26. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the introducer needle comprises an electrically insulated proximal portion and an exposed distal portion.
 27. The apparatus of claim 26, wherein the electrically insulated proximal portion has an external coating of a polymeric material.
 28. The apparatus of claim 27, wherein the external coating comprises a poly-para-xylylene.
 29. The apparatus of claim 27, wherein the external coating is selected from the group consisting of Parylene N, Parylene C, and Parylene D.
 30. The apparatus of claim 27, wherein the external coating has a thickness in the range of from about 1.0 /m to 0.3 mm.
 31. The apparatus of claim 19, wherein the shaft comprises a material selected from the group consisting of platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, and their alloys.
 32. The apparatus of claim 19, further comprising a high frequency power supply, the shaft and the active electrode are independently coupled to the power supply.
 33. The apparatus of claim 32, further comprising a connection block electrically coupled to the shaft and to the active electrode.
 34. The apparatus of claim 33, wherein the power supply is electrically coupled to the shaft and to the active electrode via the connection block.
 35. The apparatus of claim 33, further comprising a handle affixed to the shaft proximal end, wherein the handle houses the connection block.
 36. The apparatus of claim 19, wherein the active electrode is expandable between an unexpanded configuration and at least an expanded configuration.
 37. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein the unexpanded configuration is a constrained configuration dictated by the confines of an introducer lumen, the introducer lumen located axially within an introducer device, and the introducer lumen adapted for passing the shaft therethrough.
 38. An electrosurgical system, comprising: an introducer needle having an introducer lumen therethrough; a shaft adapted for passage within the introducer lumen and for making electrical contact with the introducer lumen; an active electrode arranged on the shaft; and a return electrode spaced from the active electrode, wherein the return electrode comprises the introducer needle in combination with the shaft when the shaft is positioned within the introducer lumen.
 39. The system of claim 38, wherein the shaft comprises a shaft of an electrically conducting material.
 40. The system of claim 39, wherein the shaft makes electrical contact with an inner surface of the introducer needle.
 41. The system of claim 38, further comprising a high frequency power supply.
 42. The system of claim 41, further comprising a connection block adapted for independently coupling the active electrode and the shaft to the power supply.
 43. An introducer device for introducing an electrosurgical probe into a patient, comprising: a shaft of an electrically conducting material, the shaft having an outer surface and an inner surface, the inner surface defining an introducer lumen, the introducer lumen adapted for accommodating a shaft of an electrosurgical probe and for making electrical contact with the shaft when the shaft is engaged within the introducer lumen; and an external coating of an electrically insulating material disposed on a portion of the outer surface of the shaft, wherein the outer surface includes an exposed portion, and the exposed portion lacks the external coating.
 44. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the exposed portion has a length in the range of from about 2 mm to 12 mm.
 45. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein at least the exposed portion of the shaft is adapted to function as a return electrode for the electrosurgical probe.
 46. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the exposed portion comprises a distal annular band of the outer surface of the shaft.
 47. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the external coating comprises a poly-para-xylylene.
 48. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the external coating is selected from the group consisting of Parylene N, Parylene C, and Parylene D.
 49. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the external coating is deposited by gas phase polymerization.
 50. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the external coating has a thickness in the range of from about 1.0 μm to 0.3 mm.
 51. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the shaft includes a proximal end and a distal terminus, and wherein the external coating extends from the proximal end to a location proximal to the distal terminus.
 52. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the shaft has a length in the range of from about 5 cm to 30 cm.
 53. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the shaft has an external diameter in the range of from about 1.5 mm to 4 mm.
 54. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the introducer lumen has a diameter in the range of from about 1.0 mm to 2.5 mm.
 55. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the shaft comprises a material selected from the group consisting of platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, and their alloys.
 56. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the shaft has a beveled distal end.
 57. The introducer device of claim 43, wherein the shaft comprises a stainless steel tube having a beveled distal end.
 58. A method for electrosurgically treating a target tissue of a patient in situ, comprising: a) providing an electrosurgical apparatus, the apparatus including a shaft, an active electrode disposed on the shaft, and a return electrode spaced from the active electrode; b) positioning the active electrode in at least close proximity to the target tissue; and c) while the return electrode is electrically coupled to the introducer device, applying a high frequency voltage between the active electrode and the return electrode.
 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the introducer device comprises an introducer needle having an introducer lumen therethrough.
 60. The method of claim 59, wherein the shaft is adapted for slidable engagement with the introducer lumen.
 61. The method of claim 59, wherein the shaft comprises an electrically conducting material, and the shaft makes electrical contact with the introducer needle when the shaft is engaged within the introducer lumen.
 62. The method of claim 58, wherein the shaft includes a shaft distal end, and the active electrode is disposed at the shaft distal end.
 63. The method of claim 58, further comprising: d) delivering an electrically conductive fluid to the distal end of the apparatus to provide a current flow path between the active electrode and the return electrode.
 64. The method of claim 58, wherein said step b) comprises: e) positioning a distal end of the apparatus in an electrically conductive fluid to provide a current flow path between the active electrode and the return electrode.
 65. The method of claim 58, wherein said step b) comprises: a) advancing a distal end of the introducer device towards the target tissue; and b) axially translating the introducer device relative to the shaft such that the active electrode protrudes from a distal end of the introducer device.
 66. The method of claim 58, further comprising: h) prior to said step c), independently coupling the active electrode and the shaft to a high frequency power supply, the power supply adapted for operation in at least one of an ablation mode and a subablation mode.
 67. The method of claim 66, wherein the power supply is operating in the ablation mode, and the high frequency voltage applied in said step c) is sufficient to volumetrically remove at least a portion of the target tissue.
 68. The method of claim 66, wherein the power supply is operating in the sub-ablation mode, and the high frequency voltage is sufficient to coagulate, stiffen, or contract at least a portion of the target tissue.
 69. The method of claim 67, wherein the high frequency voltage is in the range of from about 70 volts RMS to 350 volts RMS.
 70. The method of claim 68, wherein the high frequency voltage is in the range of from about 20 volts RMS to 90 volts RMS.
 71. The method of claim 58, wherein the target tissue is exposed to a temperature in the range of from about 40° C. to 90° C.
 72. The method of claim 58, wherein the active electrode comprises an expandable active electrode head.
 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the active electrode head is movable between a first configuration and at least a second configuration, wherein the first configuration and the second configuration represent an unexpanded configuration and an expanded configuration, respectively.
 74. The method of claim 73, wherein said step b) is performed in the unexpanded configuration.
 75. The method of claim 58, further comprising, prior to said step c): i) retracting the introducer device relative to the shaft such that the active electrode protrudes from a distal end of the introducer device; and j) expanding the active electrode to an expanded configuration.
 76. The method of claim 73, wherein said step c) is performed in the expanded configuration.
 77. A method for treating tissue, comprising: positioning an active electrode in close proximity to a tissue structure within a patient's body; electrically coupling a return electrode to an introducer shaft; and applying sufficient high frequency voltage between the active and return electrode to modify the tissue structure.
 78. The method of claim 77, wherein the electrically coupling step is carried out by advancing a shaft of an electrosurgical probe through the introducer shaft and contacting a portion of the introducer shaft with the return electrode.
 79. The method of claim 78, further comprising the step of electrically connecting the return electrode to a high frequency power supply, wherein the introducer shaft forms a portion of a conductive path between the return electrode and the power supply.
 80. The method of claim 77, wherein the high frequency voltage is sufficient to ablate the tissue.
 81. An electrosurgical apparatus, comprising: a shaft having a shaft distal end and a shaft proximal end; an electrically insulating spacer disposed at the shaft distal end; an active electrode disposed on the spacer, the active electrode expandable between a first unexpanded configuration and at least a second expanded configuration; and a return electrode located proximal to the spacer, wherein the return electrode comprises an uninsulated external surface of the shaft, and the return electrode has a length of at least about 5 cm.
 82. The apparatus of claim 81, wherein the active electrode comprises a shape memory alloy.
 83. The apparatus of claim 81, wherein the active electrode is biased towards the expanded configuration.
 84. The apparatus of claim 81, wherein the unexpanded configuration is a constrained configuration dictated by the confines of an introducer device, the introducer device adapted for passing the shaft distal end therethrough.
 85. The apparatus of claim 81, wherein the return electrode has a length of at least about 15 cm.
 86. The apparatus of claim 81, wherein the shaft comprises an electrically conducting material, and the entire shaft is uninsulated.
 87. The apparatus of claim 86, wherein the apparatus further comprises an introducer needle having an introducer lumen therethrough, the introducer needle comprising an electrically conducting material.
 88. The apparatus of claim 87, wherein the return electrode comprises the shaft, and the introducer needle is adapted for engaging the shaft within the introducer lumen.
 89. The apparatus of claim 88, wherein the shaft makes electrical contact with the introducer needle when the shaft is engaged within the introducer lumen, and the return electrode further comprises at least a portion of the introducer needle.
 90. The apparatus of claim 87, wherein the introducer needle comprises an electrically insulated proximal portion and an exposed distal portion, the proximal portion having an external coating.
 91. The apparatus of claim 90, wherein the external coating comprises a poly-para-xylylene.
 92. The apparatus of claim 90, wherein the external coating has a thickness in the range of from about 1.0 μm to 0.3 mm.
 93. The apparatus of claim 89, wherein the shaft comprises a material selected from the group consisting of platinum, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, nickel, iridium, and their alloys.
 94. The apparatus of claim 81, further comprising a connection block, the shaft and the active electrode electrically coupled to the connection block, and the connection block coupled to a high frequency power supply.
 95. A method for treating a target tissue of a patient, comprising: a) advancing a distal end of a shaft of an electrosurgical probe towards the target tissue, wherein during said step a) the shaft distal end is advanced into a confined space within the patient, and the shaft distal end bears an expandable active electrode head expandable between an unexpanded configuration and an expanded configuration; b) positioning the active electrode head in at least close proximity to the target tissue, wherein said steps a) and b) are performed with the active electrode head in the unexpanded configuration; c) expanding the active electrode head into the expanded configuration; and thereafter d) applying a high frequency voltage between the active electrode head and a return electrode, the high frequency voltage sufficient to ablate or modify at least a portion of the target tissue.
 96. The method of claim 95, further comprising: e) while the active electrode head is in the expanded configuration, manipulating the probe such that the active electrode head moves with respect to the target tissue.
 97. The method of claim 96, wherein manipulating the probe effects axial translation of the active electrode head.
 98. The method of claim 96, wherein manipulating the probe effects rotational movement of the active electrode head.
 99. The method of claim 96, wherein manipulating the probe effects simultaneous axial translation and rotation of the active electrode head.
 100. The method of claim 95, wherein the target tissue is exposed to a temperature in the range of from about 40° C. to 90° C.
 101. The method of claim 95, wherein the high frequency voltage is selected to ablate the target tissue, and the high frequency voltage is in the range of from about 70 volts RMS to 350 volts RMS.
 102. The method of claim 95, wherein the high frequency voltage is selected to coagulate, stiffen, shrink, or contract the target tissue, and the high frequency voltage is in the range of from about 20 volts RMS to 90 volts RMS.
 103. The method of claim 95, wherein the active electrode head comprises a shape memory alloy.
 104. The method of claim 95, wherein the active electrode head is biased towards the expanded configuration.
 105. The method of claim 95, wherein the unexpanded configuration is a constrained configuration dictated by the confines of an introducer needle, the introducer needle adapted for passing the shaft distal end therethrough.
 106. The method of claim 95, wherein the shaft comprises an electrically conducting material, the entire shaft is uninsulated, and the return electrode comprises the shaft.
 107. The method of claim 95, wherein said step a) comprises advancing the shaft distal end through an introducer lumen of an introducer needle.
 108. The method of claim 107, wherein the introducer needle is adapted for engaging the shaft within the introducer lumen.
 109. The method of claim 108, further comprising: f) independently coupling the active electrode head and the shaft to a high freqency power supply; and g) making electrical contact between the shaft and the introducer needle when the shaft is engaged within the introducer lumen, such that the introducer needle provides a portion of a current flow path between the shaft and the power supply.
 110. The method of claim 109, wherein the introducer needle comprises an electrically insulated proximal portion and an exposed distal portion, the proximal portion having an external coating. 